Dutch Revolt Prince Maurice at the Battle of Nieuwpoort Date 1568 - 1648 Location The Low Countries (worldwide colonial warfare) Result Treaty of Münster; Independence of the Dutch Republic Belligerents Dutch rebels Spanish Empire

The Dutch Revolt, Eighty Years' War or The Revolt of the Netherlands (1568^[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Low Countries against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. Maurice of Nassau (Maurits van Nassau ( 14 November 1567 &ndash 23 April 1625) Prince of Orange (1618&ndash1625 The Battle of Nieuwpoort, between a Dutch army under Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere and a Spanish army under Albrecht of Austria The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt Colonial war is a form of conflict fought between the foreign occupiers of a Colony and the colony's indigenous population colonists or the military forces of a rival The Peace of Münster was a Treaty between the United Netherlands and Spain signed in 1648. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The Seventeen Provinces were a Personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 15th century and 16th century roughly covering the current Netherlands The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries (1516-1700 when this country was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty (also associated to

Spain was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged. The Capture of Brielle by the Sea Beggars, or Watergeuzen on 1 April 1572 marked a turning point in the uprising of the Low Countries against The northern provinces became independent, first de facto, and in 1648 de jure. During the revolt, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, better known as the Dutch Republic, rapidly grew to become a world power through its merchant shipping and experienced a period of economic, scientific, and cultural growth. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The Southern Netherlands (situated in modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg and Northern France—see also: Spanish Netherlands and French Netherlands) remained under Spanish rule. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish Nord-Pas de Calais (French Nord-Pas de Calais; Dutch Noord-Nauw van Kales) is one of the 26 regions of France. The continuous repression by the Spanish in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing to the success of the Dutch Republic. Additionally, by the end of the war in 1648 large areas of the Southern Netherlands had been lost to France which had, under the guidance of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII of France, allied itself with the Dutch Republic in the 1630s against the Habsburg dynasty. This article is about a cardinal For information on the Russian also called The Red Eminence, see Mikhail Andreyevich Suslov. For the cognac see Louis XIII de Rémy Martin. Louis XIII ( September 27, 1601 – May 14, 1643)

The first phase of the conflict can be considered to be the Dutch War of Independence. The focus of the latter phase was to gain official recognition of the already de facto independence of the United Provinces. This phase coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major power and the founding of the Dutch colonial empire. The Dutch Empire was the territories controlled by The Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century

Contents 1 Background 1.1 Taxation 1.2 Protestantism 1.3 Centralisation 2 Initial stages (1555-1572) 2.1 Prelude to the rebellion (1555-1568) 2.2 Nobility in opposition 2.3 1566 - Iconoclasm and repression 2.4 William of Orange 3 Resurgence (1572–1585) 3.1 Pacification of Ghent 3.2 Unions of Arras and Utrecht 3.3 Oath of Abjuration 3.4 The fall of Antwerp 4 De facto independence of the north (1585–1609) 5 Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) 6 Final stages (1621–1648) 6.1 War recommences 6.2 Colonial theatre 6.3 From war to peace 6.4 Peace 7 Aftermath 7.1 Nature of the war 7.2 Effect on the Low Countries 7.3 Effect on the Spanish Empire 7.4 Political implications in Europe 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Background

In a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces. Duke of Burgundy was a title borne by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, a small portion of traditional lands of Burgundians west of river Saône which The Seventeen Provinces were a Personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 15th century and 16th century roughly covering the current Netherlands ^[2] Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian Netherlands were still intact when Charles V was born in Ghent. Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Ghent (ˈɡɛnt Gent ʝɛnt in Dutch, Gand in French, and formerly Gaunt in English) is a City and a He was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Spanish, and some German. ^[3] In 1506 he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands. Subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the combined kingdoms of Aragon, and Castile and León which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain. Castile and León (Castilla y León known formally as the Community of Castile and León is one of the seventeen autonomous communities of Spain. The Spanish colonization of the Americas was Spain 's conquest settlement and rule over much of the Western hemisphere. In 1519 he became ruler of the Habsburg empire, and he gained the title Holy Roman Emperor in 1530. Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states ^[4]

Taxation

Flanders had long been a very wealthy region, and had been coveted by the French kings for a long time. Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The other Netherlands had also grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within the Habsburg empire. An entrepreneur is a person who has possession over a company enterprise, or Venture, and assumes significant accountability for the inherent risks and the outcome ^[5] Under Charles V the Habsburg empire became a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe. Control and defence of these were hampered by the disparateness of the territories and huge length of the empire's borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbours in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars and against the Turks in the Mediterranean Sea. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands paid heavy taxes to fund these wars,^[6] but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, because they were directed against their most important trading partners.

Protestantism

During the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Dutch Protestants, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities. ^[7] By the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then. ^[8][9] In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, Charles V, and later Philip II, felt it was their duty to fight Protestantism,^[4] which was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The harsh measures led to increasing grievances in the Netherlands, where the local governments had embarked on a course of peaceful coexistence. In the second half of the century, the situation escalated. Philip sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Netherlands once more a Catholic region. ^[10]

The Dutch Protestants compared their humble values favorably against the supposedly luxurious habits of the ecclesiastical nobility.

Centralisation

Part of the shifting balance of power in the late Middle Ages meant that besides the local nobility, many of the Dutch administrators by now were not traditional aristocrats, but instead stemmed from non-noble families that had risen in status over the last centuries. The Leo Belgicus, Latin for Belgian Lion or Dutch Lion (see below is a map of the Low Countries (the Netherlands and Belgium Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations ^[11] Against this the collection of the scattered aristocratic principalities in personal unions under, the Burgundian dukes, allocated more than ever to the high nobility and their governors. By the fifteenth century, Brussels had thus become the de facto capital of the Seventeen Provinces. Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is

Dating back to the Middle Ages the districts of the Netherlands, represented by its nobility and the wealthy city-dwelling merchants still had a large measure of autonomy in appointing its administrators. Charles V and Philip II set out to improve the management of the empire by increasing the authority of the central government in matters like law and taxes,^[11] a policy which caused suspicion both among the nobility and the merchant class. An example of this is the takeover of power in the city of Utrecht in 1528 when Charles V supplanted the council of guild masters governing the city by his own stadtholder, who took over worldly powers in the whole province of Utrecht from the archbishop of Utrecht. Utrecht ( city and municipality is the capital and most populous city of the Dutch province of Utrecht. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers A Stadtholder ( Dutch: stadhouder, " steward " or literally "place-keeper" or "stead-holder" in older Dutch in the Low The Archbishopric of Utrecht is the Archbishopric based in the Dutch city of Utrecht. Charles ordered the construction of the heavily fortified castle of Vredenburg, for defence against the Duchy of Gelre and to control the citizens of Utrecht. Vredenburg or Vredeborch was a 16th-century castle built by Habsburg emperor Charles V in the city of Utrecht in The Netherlands. This article deals with the historical county and duchy of Guelders for other meanings see Gelderland. ^[12]
Under the governorship of Mary of Hungary (1531-1555), traditional power had for a large part been taken away both from the stadtholders of the provinces and from the high noblemen, who had been replaced by professional jurists in the Council of State. In the Netherlands, the Council of State ( Raad van State) is a Constitutionally established advisory body to the Government which consists of ^[13]

Initial stages (1555-1572)

Prelude to the rebellion (1555-1568)

In 1556 Charles passed on his throne to his son Philip II of Spain. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 ^[4] Charles, despite his harsh actions, had been seen as a ruler empathetic to the needs of the Netherlands. Philip, on the other hand, was raised in Spain and spoke neither Dutch nor French. During Philip's reign, tensions flared in the Netherlands over heavy taxation, suppression of Protestantism, and centralisation efforts. The growing conflict would reach a boiling point and would lead ultimately to the war of independence.

Nobility in opposition

In an effort to build a stable and trustworthy government of the Netherlands, Philip appointed several members of the high nobility of the Netherlands to the States General, the governing body of the seventeen Netherlands. He put his confidante Granvelle as head of the States General. Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle ( August 20 1517 - September 21 1586) was a French statesman made a cardinal, who followed Furthermore, he appointed Margaret of Parma as governor of the Netherlands. ^[4] However, already in 1558 the states started to contradict Philip’s wishes, by objecting to his tax proposals and demanding the withdrawal of Spanish troops. Subsequent reforms met with much opposition, which was mainly directed at Granvelle. Petitions to King Philip by the high nobility went unanswered. Some of the most influential nobles, including the count of Egmont, the count of Horne, and William of Orange, withdrew from the States General until Philip recalled Granvelle. Lamoral Count of Egmont Prince of Gavre ( November 18, 1522, La Hamaide near Ellezelles &ndash June 5 1568, Brussels) Horne (also Horn, Hoorn or Hoorne) is a small historic County of the Holy Roman Empire in present Netherlands and ^[4] In late 1564, the nobles had noticed the growing power of the reformation and urged Philip to come up with realistic measures to prevent violence. Philip answered that sterner oppression could be the only answer. Subsequently Egmont, Horne and Orange withdrew once more from the States General and Bergen and Meghem resigned their Stadholdership. ^[4] During the same period, the religious protests were increasing in spite of increased oppression. In 1566, a league of about 400 members of the high nobility presented a petition to the governor Margaret of Parma, to suspend persecution until the rest had returned. Count Berlaymont called the presentation of this petition an act of 'beggars' (French gueux), a name taken up as an honour by the petitioners (Geuzen). Geuzen ( French: Les Gueux, English: the Beggars) was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents who in The petition was sent on to Philip for a final verdict. ^[4]

1566 - Iconoclasm and repression

See also: Geuzen

The atmosphere in the Netherlands was tense due to the rebellion preaching of Calvinist leaders, hunger after the bad harvest of 1565, and economic difficulties due to the Northern Seven Years' War. Geuzen ( French: Les Gueux, English: the Beggars) was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents who in The Northern Seven Years' War (also known as the Nordic Seven Years' War, the First Northern War or the Seven Years War in Scandinavia) was the war Early August 1566, a mob stormed the church of Hondschoote in Flanders (now in Northern France). Hondschoote is a commune of the Nord département, in northern France. ^[14] This relatively small incident spread North and led to a massive iconoclastic movement by Calvinists, who stormed churches and other religious buildings to desecrate and destroy statues and images of Catholic saints all over the Netherlands. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity According to the Calvinists, these statues represented worship of idols. ^[4] The number of actual image-breakers appears to have been relatively small^[15] and the exact backgrounds of the movement are debated,^[16] but in general, local authorities did not step in to rein in the vandalism. The actions of the iconoclasts drove the nobility into two camps, with Orange and other grandees opposing the movement and others, notably Henry of Brederode, supporting it. Henry Count of Bréderode (December 1531 &ndash February 15 1568) was born at Brussels. Even before he answered the petition by the nobles, Philip had lost control in the troublesome Netherlands. He saw no other option than to send an army to suppress the rebellion. On 22 August 1567, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, marched into Brussels at the head of 10,000 troops. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor. Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel 3rd Duke of Alba (Don Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel tercer duque de Alba ( October 29, ^[17]

Alba took harsh measures and rapidly established a special court (Raad van Beroerten or council of upheavals) to judge anyone who opposed the king. No one, not even high nobility who had been pleading for less harsh measures, was safe. Alba considered himself the direct representative of Philip in the Netherlands and frequently bypassed Margaret of Parma and made use of her to lure back some of the fugitive nobles, notably the counts of Egmont and Horne, causing her to resign office in September 1567. Lamoral Count of Egmont Prince of Gavre ( November 18, 1522, La Hamaide near Ellezelles &ndash June 5 1568, Brussels) Philip de Montmorency ( 1524 - June 5, 1568, Brussels) was also known as Count of Hoorn. ^[18] Egmont and Horne were arrested for high treason, condemned, and a year later decapitated on the Grand Place in Brussels. Decapitation (from Latin, caput, capitis, meaning head or beheading, is the cutting off of the head of a person or animal Egmont and Horne had been Catholic nobles who were loyal to the King of Spain until their death. The reason for their execution was that Alba considered they had been treasonous to the king in their tolerance to Protestantism. Their death, ordered by a Spanish noble, rather than a local court, provoked outrage throughout the Netherlands. Over one thousand people were executed in the following months. ^[3] The large number of executions led the court to be nicknamed the "Blood Court" in the Netherlands, and Alba to be called the "iron duke". Rather than pacifying the Netherlands, these measures helped to fuel the unrest.

William of Orange

Main article: William the Silent

William I of Orange was stadtholder of the provinces Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and Margrave of Antwerp; and the most influential noble in the States General who had signed the petition. William I Prince of Orange ( April 24 1533 — July 10 1584) also widely known as William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger or simply William I Prince of Orange ( April 24 1533 — July 10 1584) also widely known as William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger or simply A Stadtholder ( Dutch: stadhouder, " steward " or literally "place-keeper" or "stead-holder" in older Dutch in the Low Holland is a region in the western part of the Netherlands. A maritime and economic power in the 17th century Holland today consists of the Dutch provinces of Zeeland ( also called Zealand in English and Zeelandic, is a province of the Netherlands. Utrecht ( ˈyːtrɛxt is the smallest province of the Netherlands, and is located in the center of the country Margrave (marchio is the English and French form (recorded since 1551 of the German Title Markgraf (from Mark " ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the After the arrival of Alba, to avoid arrest, as had happened to Egmont and Horne, he fled to the lands ruled by his wife's father — the Count-Elector of Saxony. Anna of Saxony ( December 23, 1544; Dresden - December 18, 1577; Dresden) was the only child and heiress of Maurice A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl The Electorate of Saxony (Kurfürstentum Sachsen or Duchy of Upper Saxony was an independent hereditary electorate of the Holy Roman Empire from 1356–1806 All his lands and titles in the Netherlands were forfeited to the Spanish king.

In 1568, William returned to try to drive the highly unpopular Duke of Alba from Brussels. Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is He did not see this as an act of treason against the king (Philip II), but as an option for reconciliation with the Spanish king. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 William's disposing of misguided ministers like Alba would allow the king to take his legal place once more. This view is reflected in today's Dutch national anthem, the Wilhelmus, in which the last lines of the first stanza read: den koning van Hispanje heb ik altijd geëerd (I have always honoured the king of Spain). The term anthem means either a specific form of Anglican church music (in Music theory and religious contexts or more generally a song (or composition of Het Wilhelmus ( ( English Translation: The William) is the National anthem of the Netherlands and is the oldest national anthem in In pamphlets and in his letters to allies in the Netherlands William also called attention to the right of subjects to renounce their oath of obedience if the sovereign would not respect their privileges. ^[19] An attempt was made to encroach on the Netherlands from four different directions, with armies led by his brothers invading from Germany and with French Huguenots invading from the south. The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth Although the Battle of Rheindalen near Roermond occurred already on 23 April 1568 and was won by the Spanish, the Battle of Heiligerlee, fought on 23 May 1568, is commonly regarded as the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, and it resulted in a victory for the rebel army. The battle of Rheindalen was fought on April 23 1568. Joost de Soete, lord of Villers, marched into the region with a haphazard army of Dutch Roermond ( is a city a Municipality, and a diocese in the southeastern part of the Netherlands. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at The Battle of Heiligerlee ( Heiligerlee, Groningen, 23 May, 1568) was fought between Dutch rebels and the Spanish army Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne But the campaign ended in failure as William ran out of money and his own army disintegrated, while those of his allies were destroyed by Alba.

William of Orange stayed at large and, being the only one of the grandees still able to offer resistance, was from then on seen as the leader of the rebellion. When the revolt broke out once more in 1572 he moved his court back to the Netherlands, to Delft in Holland, as the ancestral lands of Orange in Breda remained occupied by the Spanish. Delft is a city and Municipality in the province of South Holland (Zuid-Holland the Netherlands. Holland is a region in the western part of the Netherlands. A maritime and economic power in the 17th century Holland today consists of the Dutch provinces of Delft remained William's base of operations until his assassination by Balthasar Gérard in 1584. Balthasar Gérard (in Dutch, Gerards or Gerardts (1557&ndash1584 was the Assassin of the Dutch independence leader William I of Orange

Resurgence (1572–1585)

Spain was hampered by the fact that it had to wage war on different fronts simultaneously. Its struggle against the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Sea put serious limits on the military power it could deploy against the rebels in the Netherlands. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Even so, by 1570 the Spanish had more or less suppressed the rebellion throughout the Netherlands. However, in March 1569, in an effort to finance his troops, Alba had proposed to the States that new taxes be introduced, among them the "Tenth Penny", a 10 per cent levy on all sales other than landed property. This proposal was rejected by the States, and a compromise was subsequently agreed upon. Then, in 1571, Alba decided to press forward with the collection of the Tenth Penny regardless of the States' opposition. ^[20] This aroused strong protest from both Catholics and Protestants, and support for the rebels grew once more and was fanned by a large group of refugees who had fled the country during Alba's rule. On March 1, 1572, the English Queen Elizabeth I ousted the Gueux, known as Sea Beggars, from the English harbours in an attempt to appease the Spanish king. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Geuzen ( French: Les Gueux, English: the Beggars) was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents who in The Gueux under their leader Lumey then unexpectedly captured the almost undefended town of Brill on April 1. William II de la Marck (1542&ndash1578 (Dutch Willem II van der Marck) was Lord of Lumey and initially admiral of the Gueux de mer, the so-called 'sea The Capture of Brielle by the Sea Beggars, or Watergeuzen on 1 April 1572 marked a turning point in the uprising of the Low Countries against Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne In securing Brill, the rebels had gained a foothold, and more importantly a token victory in the north. This was a sign for Protestants all over the Low Countries to rebel once more. ^[3]

Most of the important cities in the provinces of Holland and Zealand declared loyalty to the rebels. Notable exceptions were Amsterdam and Middelburg, which remained loyal to the Catholic cause until 1578. Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west This is about the city in the Netherlands For other uses see Middelburg (disambiguation. William of Orange was put at the head of the revolt. He was recognized as Governor-General and Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Friesland and Utrecht at a meeting in Dordrecht in July 1572. Dordrecht (population 119649 in 2004 or in English (and locally colloquially Dordt, is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South It was agreed that power would be shared between Orange and the States. ^[21] With the influence of the rebels rapidly growing in the northern provinces, the war entered a second and more decisive phase.

However, this also led to an increased discord amongst the Dutch. On one side there was a militant Calvinist minority that wanted to continue fighting the Catholic Philip II and convert all Dutch citizens to Calvinism. On the other end was a mostly Catholic minority that wanted to remain loyal to the governor and his administration in Brussels. In between was the large majority of (Catholic) Dutch that had no particular allegiance, but mostly wanted to restore Dutch privileges and the expulsion of the Spanish mercenary armies. William of Orange was the central figure who had to rally these groups to a common goal. In the end he was forced to move more and more towards the radical Calvinist side, because the Calvinists were most fanatic in fighting the Spanish. He went over to Calvinism himself in 1573. ^[22]

Pacification of Ghent

Being unable to deal with the rebellion, Alba was replaced in 1573 by Luis de Requesens and a new policy of moderation was attempted. Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens ( Barcelona, 1528 — Brussels, March 5, 1576) Spanish governor of The Netherlands, had the Spain, however, had to declare bankruptcy in 1575. Requesens had not managed to broker a policy acceptable to both the Spanish king and the Netherlands when he died in early 1576. The inability to pay the Spanish mercenary armies endured, leading to numerous mutinies and in November 1576 troops sacked Antwerp at the cost of some 8,000 lives. The sack of Antwerp during the Eighty Years' War is known as the Spanish Fury. This so-called "Spanish Fury" strengthened the resolve of the rebels in the 17 provinces to take fate into their own hands.

The Netherlands negotiated an internal treaty, the Pacification of Ghent in the same year 1576, in which the provinces agreed to religious tolerance and pledged to fight together against the mutinous Spanish forces. The Pacification of Ghent, signed on November 8, 1576, was an alliance of the provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands for the purpose of driving mutinying For the mostly Catholic provinces, the destruction by mutinous foreign troops was the principal reason to join in an open revolt, but formally the provinces still remained loyal to the sovereign Philip II. However, some religious hostilities continued and Spain, aided by shipments of bullion from the New World, was able to send a new army under Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza. Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Alexander Farnese ( Italian: Alessandro Farnese, Spanish: Alejandro Farnesio, ( August 27 1545 &ndash ^[3]

Unions of Arras and Utrecht

On January 6, 1579, prompted by the new Spanish governor Alexander Farnese, the later (Duke of Parma) and upset by aggressive Calvinism of the Northern States, some of the Southern States, the so-called Walloon Flanders located in what is now France and Wallonia, signed the Union of Arras (Atrecht), expressing their loyalty to the Spanish king. Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King The Duchy of Parma was a small Italian state between 1545 and 1802 and again from 1814 to 1860 The Walloon Flanders (in French Flandre wallonne, in Latin Comitia Flandriae Wallonensis) is a part of the County of Flanders Wallonia, or Wallonie, (Wallonie Wallonien Wallonië Waloneye is the Meridional part of Belgium belonging to the Romance linguistic field The People of Arras (Dutch Atrecht) was an accord signed on January 6, 1579 in Arras ( Atrecht) under which the southern states Arras (Atrecht is the capital of the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. This meant an early end to the goal of united independence for the 17 provinces of the Low Countries on the basis of religious tolerance, agreed upon only three years previously in the pacification of Ghent.

In response to the union of Arras, William united the northern provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders and Groningen in the Union of Utrecht on January 23, 1579. This article deals with the historical county and duchy of Guelders for other meanings see Gelderland. Groningen is the northeasternmost province of the Netherlands. The Union of Utrecht (Unie van Utrecht is a treaty signed on January 23, 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern Provinces Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor Southern cities like Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp joined the Union of Utrecht. Bruges (Brugge is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium. Ghent (ˈɡɛnt Gent ʝɛnt in Dutch, Gand in French, and formerly Gaunt in English) is a City and a Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the Effectively, the 17 provinces were now divided into a southern group loyal to the Spanish king, and a rebellious northern group.

Oath of Abjuration

In the late 16th century, it was not conceivable that a country could be governed by anyone but high nobility, if not a king, so the States General tried to find a suitable replacement for Philip. The States-General ( Staten-Generaal) is the Parliament of the Netherlands. The Protestant Queen of England, Elizabeth I seemed the obvious choice to be protector of the Netherlands. Elizabeth, however, found the idea abhorrent as she had learned from her mistake intervening with the French Huguenots Treaty of Hampton Court, and had promised herself not to involve herself in any of her fellow Monarchs’ domestic affairs for not only would intervention provoke Philip but it would set an inconvenient precedent; if she could interfere in other Monarchs affairs, they very well might return the favour. Subsequently Elizabeth did break her promise by guaranteeing the Dutch rebels aid with the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585, and as a consequence Philip aided the Irish in the Nine Years War. The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Netherlands on August 20, 1585 at Nonsuch Palace in Surrey The Nine Years' War (1688–97 – often called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg – was a major war of the late 17th The States-General responded to Elizabeth's refusal by inviting the younger brother of the French king, the Duke of Anjou, to be sovereign ruler. Hercule François Duke of Anjou and Alençon, often simply referred to as "the Duke of Alençon" ( March 18, 1555 &ndash June 19 Anjou accepted on the condition that the Netherlands officially denounce any loyalty to Philip. In 1581, the Oath of Abjuration was issued, in which the Netherlands proclaimed that the king of Spain had not upheld his responsibilities to the Netherlands population and would therefore no longer be accepted as rightful king. Anjou was, however, deeply distrusted by the population and he became increasingly bothered by the limited influence the States were willing to allow him. After some effort to increase his power by military action against the uncooperative cities, Anjou left the Netherlands in 1583.

Elizabeth was now offered the sovereignty of the Netherlands, but she declined. All options for foreign royalty being exhausted, the civilian body States General eventually decided to rule as a republican body instead.

The fall of Antwerp

Immediately after the oath of abjuration, Spain sent a new army to recapture the United Provinces. Over the following years, Parma reconquered the major part of Flanders and Brabant, as well as large parts of the northeastern provinces. The County of Flanders was a historical region in the Low Countries. The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. The Roman Catholic religion was restored in much of this area. In 1585, Antwerp — the largest city in the Low Countries at the time — fell into his hands, which caused over half its population to flee to the north (see also Siege of Antwerp). Between 1560 and 1590, the population of Antwerp plummeted from c. 100,000 inhabitants to c. 42,000. ^[23]

William of Orange, who had been declared an outlaw by Philip II in March 1580,^[24] was assassinated by a supporter of the king on July 10, 1584. An outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the Law " by folk-etymology from the original Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. He would be succeeded as leader of the rebellion by his son Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange. Maurice of Nassau (Maurits van Nassau ( 14 November 1567 &ndash 23 April 1625) Prince of Orange (1618&ndash1625

The Netherlands were split into an independent northern part, while the southern part remained under Spanish control. Due to the almost uninterrupted rule of the Calvinist-dominated separatists, most of the population of the northern provinces became converted to Protestantism over the next decades. The south, under Spanish rule, remained a Catholic stronghold; most of its Protestants fled to the north. Spain retained a large military presence in the south, where it could also be used against France.

De facto independence of the north (1585–1609)

With the war going against them, the United Provinces had sought help from the kingdoms of France and England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Dutch had even offered each monarch the crown of the Netherlands, but both had declined.

While England had unofficially been supporting the Dutch for years, Elizabeth now decided to intervene directly. In 1585, under the Treaty of Nonsuch, Elizabeth I sent the Earl of Leicester to take the rule as lord-regent, with 5,000 to 6,000 troops, including 1,000 cavalry. The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Netherlands on August 20, 1585 at Nonsuch Palace in Surrey Robert Dudley 1st Earl of Leicester ( 24 June 1532 /1533 &ndash 4 September 1588) was the long standing Favourite of Elizabeth The Earl of Leicester proved to be a poor commander, and also did not understand the sensitive trade arrangements between the Dutch regents and the Spanish. Moreover, Leicester sided with the radical Calvinists, earning him the distrust of the Catholics and moderates. Leicester also collided with many Dutch patricians when he tried to strengthen his own power at the cost of the Provincial States. Within a year of his arrival, he had lost his public support. Leicester returned to England, after which the States-General, being unable to find any other suitable regent, appointed Maurice of Orange (William's son), at the age of 20, to the position of Captain General of the Dutch army in 1587. Maurice of Nassau (Maurits van Nassau ( 14 November 1567 &ndash 23 April 1625) Prince of Orange (1618&ndash1625 Captain General (and its literal equivalent in several languages is a high Military rank and a gubernatorial title

The borders of the present-day Netherlands were largely defined by the campaigns of Maurice of Orange. The Dutch successes owed not only to his tactical skill but also to the financial burden Spain incurred replacing ships lost in the disastrous campaign of the Spanish Armada in 1588, and the need to refit its navy to recover control of the sea after the subsequent English counter attack. The Spanish Armada ( Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible The English Armada (also known as the Counter Armada, or the Drake-Norris Expedition) was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen Elizabeth In 1595, when Henry IV of France declared war against Spain, the Spanish government declared bankruptcy again. Henry IV (Henri IV ( 13 December 1553 &ndash 14 May 1610) ruled as King of France from 1589 to 1610 and as Henry III However, by regaining control of the sea, Spain was able to greatly increase its supply of gold and silver from the Americas, which allowed it to increase military pressure on England and France.

Under financial and military pressure, in 1598, Philip ceded the Netherlands to his favorite daughter Isabella and to her husband, Philip's nephew Archduke Albert of Austria, following the conclusion of the Treaty of Vervins with France. Albert VII Archduke of Austria (sometimes called Albrecht of Austria) ( 15 November 1559 &ndash 13 July 1621) was together The Peace of Vervins was signed between the representatives of Henry IV of France and Philip II of Spain on 2 May 1598, at the small town of By that time Maurice was engaged in conquering important cities in the Netherlands. Starting with the important fortification of Bergen op Zoom (1588), Maurice conquered Breda (1590), Zutphen, Deventer, Delfzijl and Nijmegen (1591), Steenwijk, Coevorden (1592) Geertruidenberg (1593) Groningen (1594) Grol, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal (1597) and Grave (1602). Bergen op Zoom ( is a Municipality and a city in the south of the Netherlands. Breda ( is a Municipality and a city in the southern part of the Netherlands. Zutphen is a city in the province of Gelderland in the Netherlands. Deventer is a Municipality and City in the Salland region of the Dutch Province of Overijssel. Delfzijl ( Gronings: Delfsiel) is a Municipality and City in the northeast of the Netherlands. Nijmegen (ˈnɛɪmeɣən) (obsolete spellings Nijmwegen Nymegen Nieumeghen &mdash Nimwegen in local dialect and in German, Nimègue in French Steenwijk is a village in the Dutch province of Overijssel. It is located in the municipality of Steenwijkerland. Coevorden ( is a Municipality and a City in the northeastern Netherlands. Geertruidenberg ( is a city and municipality in the province North Brabant in the south of the Netherlands. Groningen is the capital city of the province of Groningen in the Netherlands. Groenlo is a City in the Municipality of Oost Gelre, situated in the Eastern part of the Netherlands on the German or Eanske in the local dialect ( Twents) is a Municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands, in the province of Overijssel, in the Ootmarsum ( is a town in the Dutch province of Overijssel. It is a part of the municipality of Dinkelland, and lies about 10 km north of Oldenzaal Oldenzaal is a Municipality and a town in the eastern of the Netherlands, near to the border with Germany. Grave ( is a Municipality and a city in the southern Netherlands. ^[25] As this campaign was restricted to the border areas of the current Netherlands, the heartland of Holland remained at peace, during which time it moved into its Golden age. This article focuses on social and cultural history For political events see History of the Netherlands and Dutch Revolt (1568–1648

By now, it had become clear that Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands was strong. However, control over Zeeland meant that the Northern Netherlands could control and close the estuary of the Scheldt, the entry to the sea for the important port of Antwerp. The Scheldt (Dutch Schelde, French Escaut, Latin Scaldis) is a 350 km[http //www The port of Amsterdam benefited greatly from the blockade of the port of Antwerp, to the extent that merchants in the North began to question the desirability of reconquering the South. A campaign to control the Southern provinces' coast region was launched against Maurice's advice in 1600. Although portrayed as a liberation of the Southern Netherlands, the campaign was chiefly aimed at eliminating the threat to Dutch trade posed by the Spanish-supported Dunkirkers. During the Dutch Revolt ( 1568 - 1648) the Dunkirkers or Dunkirk Privateers, were warships in the service of the Spanish Empire operating The Spaniards strengthened their positions along the coast, leading to the Battle of Nieuwpoort. The Battle of Nieuwpoort, between a Dutch army under Maurice of Nassau and Francis Vere and a Spanish army under Albrecht of Austria

Although the States-General army won great acclaim for itself and its commander by inflicting a then-surprising defeat of a Spanish army in open battle, Maurice halted the march on Dunkirk and returned to the Northern Provinces. The naval Battle of Gibraltar took place on 25 April 1607 during the Eighty Years' War when a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Dunkirk ( French: Dunkerque, dœ̃kɛʀk or; Dutch:; is a harbour city and a commune in the northernmost part of France, in the Maurice never forgave the regents, led by van Oldenbarneveld, for being sent on this mission. Johan van Oldenbarnevelt ( September 14, 1547, Amersfoort &ndash May 13, 1619, The Hague) was a Dutch statesman By now the division of the Netherlands into separate states had become almost inevitable. With the failure to eliminate the Dunkirk threat to trade, the states decided to build up their navy to protect sea trade, which had greatly increased through the creation of the Dutch East Indies Company in 1602. The Koninklijke Marine ( Royal Netherlands Navy) is the Navy of the Netherlands. The Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC in old-spelling Dutch, literally "United East Indian The strengthened Dutch fleets would prove to be a formidable force, hampering Spain's naval ambitions thereafter.

Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621)

Main article: Twelve Years' Truce

1609 saw the start of a ceasefire, afterwards called the Twelve Years' Truce, between the United Provinces and the Spanish controlled southern states, mediated by France and England at The Hague. The Twelve Years' Truce was the name given later to the 12-year period of Ceasefire within the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands from March A ceasefire (or truce) is a temporary stoppage of a War or any Armed conflict, where each side of the conflict agrees The Twelve Years' Truce was the name given later to the 12-year period of Ceasefire within the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands from March It was during this ceasefire the Dutch made great efforts to build their navy, which was later to have a crucial bearing on the course of the war.

During the Truce, two factions emerged in the Dutch camp, along political and religious lines. On one side were the Arminians, whose prominent supporters included Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius. Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought within Protestant Christianity based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Johan van Oldenbarnevelt ( September 14, 1547, Amersfoort &ndash May 13, 1619, The Hague) was a Dutch statesman Hugo Grotius or Huig de Groot, or Hugo de Groot; ( Delft, 10 April 1583 Rostock, 28 August 1645 ^[26] They tended to be well-to-do merchants who accepted a less strict interpretation of the Bible than did classical Calvinists. They were opposed by the more radical Gomarists, who had openly proclaimed their allegiance to Prince Maurice in 1610. Franciscus Gomarus ( January 30, 1563, Bruges - January 11, 1641, Groningen) was a Dutch theologian ^[27] In 1617 the conflict escalated when republicans pushed the "Sharp Resolution", allowing the cities to take measures against the Gomarists. Prince Maurice accused van Oldenbarnevelt of treason, had him arrested, and in 1619, executed. Hugo Grotius fled the country after escaping from imprisonment in Castle Loevestein. Castle Loevestein ( Slot Loevestein in Dutch) is a Medieval Castle built by the Knight Dirc Loef van Horne in 1368 ^[26]

Final stages (1621–1648)

War recommences

Negotiations for a permanent peace went on throughout the truce. Two major issues could not be resolved. First, the Spanish demand for religious freedom of Catholics in Northern Netherlands was countered by a Dutch demand for a similar religious freedom for Protestants in the Southern Netherlands. Second, there was a growing disagreement over the trade routes to the different colonies (in the Far East and the Americas) which could not be resolved. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. The Spanish made one last effort to reconquer the North, and the Dutch used their navy to enlarge their colonial trade routes to the detriment of Spain. The war was on once more — and crucially, merging with the wider Thirty Years' War. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War.

In 1622, a Spanish attack on the important fortress town of Bergen op Zoom was repelled. Hulst ( is a Municipality and a City in the southwestern Netherlands in the east of Zeelandic Flanders. Bergen op Zoom ( is a Municipality and a city in the south of the Netherlands. However, in 1625 Maurice died while the Spanish laid siege to the city of Breda. Breda ( is a Municipality and a city in the southern part of the Netherlands. The Spanish commander Ambrogio Spinola succeeded in conquering the city of Breda (an episode immortalized by the Spanish painter Velázquez in his famous painting "Las Lanzas"). Don Ambrogio Spinola Doria marqués de los Balbases (1569&ndash September 25, 1630) was an Italian general at the service of Spain Velázquez, also Velazquez, Velásquez or Velasquez, is a surname of Spanish origin After that victory, however, the tide changed definitively in favour of the Dutch Republic. Maurice's half-brother, Frederick Henry had succeeded his brother and took command of the army. Frederick Henry, or Frederik Hendrik in Dutch ( 29 January 1584 – 14 March 1647) was the Prince of Orange Frederick Henry conquered the pivotal fortified city of 's-Hertogenbosch in 1629. ' s-Hertogenbosch ( (literally "The Duke's Forest" colloquially known as Den Bosch ( — translated in French as Bois-le-Duc, in German This town, largest in the northern part of Brabant, had been considered to be impregnable from attack. Its loss was a serious blow to the Spanish.

In 1632, Frederick Henry captured Venlo, Roermond, and Maastricht during his famous "March along the Meuse" in a pincer move to prepare for the conquest of the major cities of Flanders. Venlo ( is a Municipality and a City in the southeastern Netherlands. Roermond ( is a city a Municipality, and a diocese in the southeastern part of the Netherlands. Maastricht ( Dutch; Limburgish and city dialect Mestreech; French: Maestricht or Maëstricht; Spanish: Attempts in the next years to attack Antwerp and Brussels failed, however. The Dutch were disappointed by the lack of support they received from the Flemish population. This was mainly because of the pillaging of Tienen and the new generation that had been raised in Flanders and Brabant, that had been thoroughly reconverted to Roman Catholicism and now distrusted the Calvinist Dutch even more than it loathed the Spanish occupants. Tienen or Thienen (Tirlemont is a City and Municipality in the province of Flemish Brabant, in Flanders, one of the three regions of

Colonial theatre

As more European countries began to build their empires, the war between the countries extended to colonies as well. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism Battles for profitable colonies were fought as far away as Macau, East Indies, Ceylon, Formosa (Taiwan), the Philippines, Brazil, and others. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The most important of these conflicts would become known as the Dutch-Portuguese War. The Dutch carved out a trading empire all over the world, using their dominance at sea to great advantage. The Dutch East India Company was founded to administer all Dutch trade with the East, while the Dutch West India Company did the same for the West. The Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC in old-spelling Dutch, literally "United East Indian Dutch West India Company ( Dutch: Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie or GWC; English: Chartered West India Company was a company of

In the Western colonies, the Dutch States General mostly restricted itself to supporting privateering by their captains in the Caribbean to drain the Spanish coffers, and to fill their own. A privateer was a private Warship authorized by a country's Government by Letters of marque to attack foreign shipping The most successful of these raids was the capture of the larger part of the Spanish treasure fleet by Piet Hein in 1628; which allowed Frederick Henry to finance the siege of 's Hertogenbosch; and seriously troubled Spanish payments of troops. Beginning in the 16th century the Spanish treasure fleets (or simply West Indies Fleet from Spanish Flota de Indias) transported various metal resources and agricultural For the Danish mathematician and poet see Piet Hein (Denmark. But attempts were also made to conquer existing colonies or found new ones in Brazil, North America and Africa. Most of these would be only briefly or partially successful. ^[28] In the East the activities led to the conquest of many profitable trading colonies, a major factor in bringing about the Dutch Golden Age. This article focuses on social and cultural history For political events see History of the Netherlands and Dutch Revolt (1568–1648 ^[29]

From war to peace

In 1639, Spain sent an armada bound for Flanders, carrying 20,000 troops to assist in a last large scale attempt to defeat the northern "rebels". Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The armada was decisively defeated by Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp in the Battle of the Downs. Maarten Harpertszoon Tromp ( April 23, 1598 &ndash August 10, 1653) was an officer and later Admiral in the Dutch The naval Battle of the Downs took place on 31 October 1639 ( New style) during the Eighty Years' War and was a decisive defeat of the This victory had historic consequences far beyond the Eighty Years' War as it marked the end of Spain as the dominant sea power.

An alliance with France changed the balance of power. The Republic could now hope to reconquer the Southern Netherlands. However, this would not mean that they would become a part of the Netherlands, but that they would be divided among the victors, resulting in a powerful French state bordering on the Republic. Furthermore it would mean that the port of Antwerp would most likely no longer be blockaded and might become serious competition for Amsterdam. With the Thirty Years' War decided, there was also no longer any need to fight on in order to support fellow Protestant nations. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. As a result, the decision was made to end the war. ^[30]

Peace

Main article: Peace of Westphalia

On January 30, 1648, the war ended with the Treaty of Münster between Spain and the Netherlands. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Bartholomeus van der Helst (1613 Haarlem &ndash buried December 16 1670, Amsterdam) was a Dutch Portrait painter Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain The Peace of Münster was a Treaty between the United Netherlands and Spain signed in 1648. In Münster on May 15, 1648, the parties exchanged ratified copies of the treaty. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the This treaty was part of the European scale Peace of Westphalia that also ended the Thirty Years' War. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. In the treaty, the power balance in Western Europe was readjusted to the actual geopolitical reality. This meant that de jure the Dutch Republic was recognised as an independent state and retained control over the territories that were conquered in the later stages of the war. ^[31] The new republic consisted of seven provinces: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen. Overijssel (Transiselania is a Province of the Netherlands in the central eastern part of the country Friesland ( West Frisian: Fryslân, Dutch Friesland) is a province in the north of the Netherlands and part of the bigger region known Each province was governed by its local Provincial States and by a stadtholder. In theory, each stadtholder was elected and subordinate to the States-General. However, the princes of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William I of Orange, became de facto hereditary stadtholders in Holland and Zeeland. The House of Orange-Nassau (in Dutch: Huis van Oranje-Nassau) a branch of the German House of Nassau, has played a central role in the political life In practice they usually became stadtholder of the other provinces as well. A constant power struggle, which already had shown its precursor during the Twelve year's Truce, emerged between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders, and the Regent's supporters. The Orangists were a political faction in the Netherlands and Belgium in the second half of the eigtheenth century

The border states, parts of Flanders, Brabant and Limburg that were conquered by the Dutch in the final stages of the war, were to be federally governed by the States-General. The so called Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden), which consisted of Staats-Brabant (present North Brabant), Staats-Vlaanderen (present Zeeuws-Vlaanderen) and Staats-Limburg (around Maastricht). The Generality Lands, Lands of the Generality or Common Lands (Generaliteitslanden were about one fifth of the territories of the United Provinces of the The Generality Lands, Lands of the Generality or Common Lands (Generaliteitslanden were about one fifth of the territories of the United Provinces of the North Brabant ( Dutch: Noord-Brabant,) is a province of the Netherlands, located in the south of the country bordered by Belgium The Generality Lands, Lands of the Generality or Common Lands (Generaliteitslanden were about one fifth of the territories of the United Provinces of the Zeelandic Flanders (Nl-Zeeuws-Vlaanderenogg|Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]] is the southernmost region of the province of Zeeland in southwestern Netherlands. The Generality Lands, Lands of the Generality or Common Lands (Generaliteitslanden were about one fifth of the territories of the United Provinces of the Maastricht ( Dutch; Limburgish and city dialect Mestreech; French: Maestricht or Maëstricht; Spanish:

The peace would not be long-lived as the newly emerged world powers, the Republic of the Netherlands and the Commonwealth of England, would start their first war in 1652, only four years after the peace was signed. The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland The First Anglo–Dutch War (Eerste Engelse Zeeoorlog (1652–54 (called the First Dutch War in England and the First English Sea-War in the Netherlands was

Aftermath

Nature of the war

The Eighty Years' War began with a series of battles mostly fought by mercenaries, as was typical of the time. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by While successes for both parties were limited, costs were high. As the revolt and its suppression centered largely around issues of religious freedom and taxation, the conflict necessarily involved not only soldiers, but also civilians at all levels of society. This may be one reason for the resolve and subsequent successes of the Dutch rebels in defending cities. Another factor was the fact that a few cities were sacked after having surrendered. Given the involvement of all sectors of Dutch society in the conflict, a more-or-less organized, irregular army emerged alongside the regular forces. Among these were the geuzen (from the French word "gueux" meaning "beggars"), who waged a guerrilla war against Spanish interests. Geuzen ( French: Les Gueux, English: the Beggars) was a name assumed by the confederacy of Calvinist Dutch nobles and other malcontents who in Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Especially at sea, the 'watergeuzen' were effective agents of the Dutch cause.

There were very few pitched battles where armies met in the field. Most military operations were sieges, as was typical of the era, resulting in protracted and expensive use of the military forces available. The Dutch had fortified most of their cities and even many smaller towns in accordance with the most modern views of the time. Sometimes these sieges were broken off when the enemy threatened to attack the besieging army.

In the later stages, Maurice raised a professional standing army that was even paid when no hostilities were taking place, a radical innovation in that time and part of the Military Revolution. The Military Revolution is a term used by some historians for a radical change in military strategy and tactics that is usually placed between the late Medieval era and the ^[32] This ensured him of loyal soldiers, who were trained in cooperating among each other and were intimately familiar with the doctrines of their commanders and were capable of carrying out complicated manoeuvres.

Effect on the Low Countries

In the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles V established the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands as an entity separate from France, Burgundy, or the Holy Roman Empire. The Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 was an Edict, promulgated by Charles V Holy Roman Emperor, reorganizing the Seventeen Provinces. The Netherlands at this point were among the wealthiest regions in Europe, and an important center of trade, finance, and art. The Eighty Years' War introduced a sharp breach in the region, with the Dutch Republic (the present-day Netherlands) growing into a world power (see Dutch Golden Age), and the Southern Netherlands (more or less present-day Belgium) losing much of its economic and cultural significance for centuries to come. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article focuses on social and cultural history For political events see History of the Netherlands and Dutch Revolt (1568–1648 The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The naval blockade during much of the Eighty Years' War of Antwerp, once the largest commercial centre of Europe, greatly contributed to the rise of Amsterdam as the new centre of European and world trade.

Politically, a unique situation had emerged in the Netherlands where a republican body (the States General) ruled, but where a (increasingly hereditary) noble function of Stadtholder was occupied by the house of Orange-Nassau. The House of Orange-Nassau (in Dutch: Huis van Oranje-Nassau) a branch of the German House of Nassau, has played a central role in the political life This division of power prevented large scale fighting between nobility and civilians as happened in the English Civil War. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The frictions between the civil and noble fractions, that already started in the twelve years' truce, were numerous and would finally lead to an outburst with the French supported Batavian Republic, where Dutch bourgeoisie hoped to get rid of the increasing self-esteem in the nobility once and for all. The Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek was the successor of the Republic of the United Netherlands. However, in a dramatic resurgence of nobility after the Napoleonic era the republic would be abandoned in favor of the foundation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Timeline of the Napoleonic eraThe Napoleonic Era is a period in the History of France and Europe United Kingdom of the Netherlands (or Kingdom of the United Netherlands) (1815 - 1830 (1839 (Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden Royaume-Uni des Pays-Bas was the unofficial Thus, one of the oldest republics of Europe was turned into a monarchy, which it still is today.

Effect on the Spanish Empire

The conquest of various American territories made Spain the leading European power of the 16th century. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America This brought them into continuous conflict with France and the emerging power that was England. In addition, the deeply religious monarchs Charles V and Philip II saw a role for themselves as protectors of the Catholic faith against Islam in the Mediterranean and against Protestantism in northern Europe. As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. This meant the Spanish Empire was almost continuously at war. Of all these conflicts, the Eighty Years' War was the most prolonged and had a major effect on the Spanish finances and the morale of the Spanish people, who saw taxes increase and soldiers not returning, with little successes to balance the scales. The Spanish government had to declare several bankruptcies. Bankruptcy is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their Creditors Creditors may file a bankruptcy petition against The Spanish population increasingly questioned the necessity of the war in the Netherlands and even the necessity of the Empire in general. The loss of Portugal in 1640 and the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, ending the war were the first signs that the role of the Spanish Empire in Europe was declining. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Iberian Union is a modern day term that refers to the historical political unit that governed all of the Iberian peninsula south of the Pyrenees from 1580–1640 The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries

Political implications in Europe

The Dutch revolt against their lawful king, most obviously illustrated in the oath of abjuration (1581), implied that a king could be deposed by the population if there was agreement that he did not fulfill his God given responsibility. This act by the Dutch challenged the concept of a divine right of kings, and eventually led to the Dutch Republic. The Divine Right of Kings is a general term that refers to the philosophy and ideas used to justify the authority and legitimacy of Monarchs in Medieval and The acceptance of a non--monarchic country by the other European powers in 1648 spread across Europe, fueling resistance against the divine power of Kings. Thus the Dutch rebellion can be seen as a precursor of the English Civil War (1642-1651) and the French Revolution (1789-1799), where monarchs with power based on their divine right were disposed of. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an As such, the Dutch revolt is the predecessor of liberalism in modern governments. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal

See also

Dutch History
The Dutch Republic
1584-1795
Dutch Revolt
United Provinces
The Golden Age
The Batavian revolution
[Edit]

• Synod of Dordrecht
• Union of Delft
• Catholicism and the wars of religion

References

Further reading

• The works of John Lothrop Motley (1814-1877) give an old but very detailed account of the Dutch republic in this time - Works by John Lothrop Motley at Project Gutenberg (free E-texts)
• Geyl, Pieter. John Lothrop Motley ( April 15, 1814 - May 29, 1877) was an American Historian. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works Pieter Catharinus Arie Geyl ( December 15, 1887 &ndash December 31, 1966) was a Dutch Historian (1932), The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1555-1609. Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Geyl, Pieter. Pieter Catharinus Arie Geyl ( December 15, 1887 &ndash December 31, 1966) was a Dutch Historian (1936), The Netherlands Divided, 1609-1648. Williams & Norgate, UK.
• Israel, Jonathan I. Professor Jonathan Irvine Israel (born London, 26 January 1946) is As of 2006 Modern European History Professor in the School of Historical Studies (1998), The Dutch Republic. Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806, Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-820734-4.
• Parker, Geoffrey (1977), The Dutch revolt, Penguin books, London
• Pepijn Brandon (2007), "The Dutch Revolt: a Social Analysis" from International Socialism journal 116, autumn 2007. International Socialism (ISJ is a Quarterly Journal of Socialist Theory published by the Socialist Workers Party (Britain

External links

• The Dutch Revolt site of Leiden University; http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/ (also in English)
• The canon of Dutch history has several topics related to the Eighty Years' War; http://entoen.nu/ (also in English)
• The Flanders's War (in Spanish)

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