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Apartheid in South Africa
Events and Projects

Sharpeville Massacre · Soweto uprising
Treason Trial
Rivonia Trial · Church Street bombing
CODESA · St James Church massacre
Organisations

ANC · IFP · AWB · Black Sash · CCB
Conservative Party · ECC · PP · RP
PFP · HNP · MK · PAC · SACP · UDF
Broederbond · National Party · COSATU
SADF · SAP
People

P.W Botha · Oupa Gqozo · DF Malan
Nelson Mandela · Desmond Tutu · F.W. de Klerk
Walter Sisulu · Helen Suzman · Harry Schwarz
Andries Treurnicht · HF Verwoerd · Oliver Tambo
BJ Vorster · Kaiser Matanzima · Jimmy Kruger
Steve Biko · Mahatma Gandhi · Trevor Huddleston
Places

Bantustan · District Six · Robben Island
Sophiatown · South-West Africa
Soweto · Vlakplaas
Other aspects

Apartheid laws · Freedom Charter
Sullivan Principles · Kairos Document
Disinvestment campaign
South African Police
This box: view • talk • edit

Drum is a South African family magazine mainly aimed at black readers and contains market news, entertainment and feature articles. The Sharpeville Massacre, also known as the Sharpeville shootings, occurred on March 21, 1960, when South African police began shooting on a crowd The Soweto uprising or Soweto Riots were a series of clashes in Soweto, South Africa on June 16 1976 between black youths and the South African The Treason Trial was a trial in which 156 people (105 Blacks 21 Indians 23 Whites and 7 Coloureds including Nelson Mandela, were arrested in a raid and accused of treason The Rivonia Trial was a trial that took place in South Africa between 1963 and 1964, in which ten leaders of the African National Congress The Church Street bombing was a 1983 attack by the Umkhonto we Sizwe, the military wing of the African National Congress, in the South African capital The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of negotiations between 1990 and 1993 and through unilateral steps by the De Klerk government The St James Church massacre was a massacre perpetrated on St James Church in Kenilworth, Cape Town on 25 July 1993 by four cadres The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions The Inkatha Freedom Party ( IFP) is a Political party in South Africa. The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (Afrikaner Resistance Movement or AWB, is a Political and Paramilitary group in South Africa under the leadership The Black Sash was a non-violent white women's resistance organization founded in 1955 in South Africa by Jean Sinclair The South African Civil Cooperation Bureau (CCB was a Covert, Special forces organisation during the apartheid era that operated under the authority The Conservative Party of South Africa ( Konserwatiewe Party van Suid-Afrika in Afrikaans) was a Conservative party formed in 1982 as a breakaway The End Conscription Campaign was an anti- Apartheid organisation allied to the United Democratic Front (UDF and composed of Conscientious objectors and their supporters The Progressive Party was a liberal South African party that opposed the ruling National Party's policies of Apartheid. The Reform Party was a political party that existed for just five months in 1975 The Progressive Federal Party (PFP was a South African Political party formed in 1977. The Herstigte Nasionale Party van Suid-Afrika (Reconstituted National Party of South Africa was formed as a Right wing splinter group of the South African National Party For other uses of Umkhonto see Umkhonto (disambiguation Umkhonto we Sizwe (or MK The Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (once known as the Pan Africanist Congress, abbreviated as the PAC was a South African liberation movement that South African Communist Party ( SACP) is a Political party in South Africa. The United Democratic Front ( UDF) was one of the most important anti- Apartheid organisations of the 1980s This page refers to the Afrikaner Broederbond For its later incarnation see Afrikanerbond. The National Party ( Afrikaans: Nasionale Party) (with its members sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats) was the governing party of Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU is a Trade union The South African Defence Force (SADF were the South African Armed forces from 1957 until 1994 For the post-apartheid police force see South African Police Service. Pieter Willem Botha (12 January 1916 – 31 October 2006 commonly known as "P Joshua Oupa Gqozo (ɔupʼa ɡǃʱɔz̤ɔ ( 10 March 1952 -) was the military ruler of the former Homeland of Ciskei in South Africa Daniel François Malan (22 May 1874 &ndash 7 February 1959 more commonly known as D Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (xolíɬaɬa mandéːla born 18 July 1918 is a former President of South Africa, the first to be elected in fully representative Desmond Mpilo Tutu (born 7 October 1931) is a South African Cleric and activist who rose to Worldwide fame during the 1980s as an opponent Frederik Willem de Klerk (born 18 March 1936 was the last State President of apartheid-era South Africa, serving from September 1989 to May 1994 Walter Max Ulyate Sisulu ( May 18, 1912 &ndash May 5, 2003) was a South African anti- Apartheid activist and member of the Helen Suzman, born Helen Gavronsky ( 7 November, 1917 in Germiston Gauteng, South Africa) was an anti- Apartheid Harry Heinz Schwarz (born May 13, 1924) is a former South African anti- Apartheid politician diplomat and jurist Andries Petrus Treurnicht ( February 19, 1921, Piketberg, Cape Province – April 22, 1993, Cape Town) was the Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd ( Amsterdam, 8 September 1901 &ndash Cape Town, 6 September 1966 was Prime Minister of South Africa from Oliver Reginald Tambo ( 27 October 1917 - 24 April 1993) was a South African anti- Apartheid politician and a central figure Balthazar Johannes Vorster (13 December 1915 - 10 September 1983 better known as John Vorster ("FOUR-stir" served as the Prime Minister of South Africa Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima ( June 15 1915 - June 15 2003) was a former leader of the then- Bantustan of Transkei in James Thomas "Jimmy" Kruger (1917 — May 9, 1987) was a South African Politician who rose to the position of Minister of Justice Stephen Bantu Biko December 1946 &ndash 12 September 1977 was a noted anti-[[apartheid] activist in South Africa in the 1960s and early Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Ernest Urban Trevor Huddleston KCMG ( June 15, 1913 – April 20, 1998) was an Anglican priest one-time Archbishop A bantustan or more commonly black african homeland or simply homeland, was territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South-West District Six ( Afrikaans Distrik Ses) is the name of a former inner-city residential area in Cape Town, South Africa. Robben Island ( Afrikaans Robbeneiland) is an Island in Table Bay, some seven kilometres off the coast of the Cape Town bay South Sophiatown (pronounced with a long stressed i) (also known as Sof'town or Kofifi) is a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa South-West Africa (Afrikaans Suidwes-Afrika; German Südwestafrika) was the name of what is today the Republic of Namibia. Soweto is an urban area in the City of Johannesburg, in Gauteng, South Africa. Vlakplaas is a farm 20km west of Pretoria that served as the headquarters of the South African Police Counterinsurgency unit C10 (later called C1 working The Freedom Charter was the statement of core principles of the South African Congress Alliance which consisted of the African National Congress and its allies the South The Sullivan Principles are the names of two corporate codes of conduct, developed by the African-American preacher Rev The Kairos Document (KD is a theological statement issued in 1985 by a group of black South African theologians based predominantly in the black Townships of Disinvestment (or divestment from South Africa was first advocated in the 1960s in protest of South Africa's system of Apartheid, but was not implemented on a significant For the post-apartheid police force see South African Police Service. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa It has two sister magazines - Huisgenoot (aimed at White and Coloured Afrikaans-speaking readers) and YOU (aimed at White English-speaking readers). Huisgenoot ( Afrikaans for House Companion) is a weekly Afrikaans language general interest family Magazine. Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from 17th century Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in YOU' ' is a South African magazine which is the English version of the Afrikaans family magazine Huisgenoot. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Drum was started in 1951 by Jim Bailey (James R. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January A. Bailey), an ex -R. A. F. pilot who was the son of the late Sir Abe Bailey a South African financier. Sir Abraham "Abe" Bailey 1st Baronet, KCMG, ( 6 November 1864, Cradock Eastern Cape, South Africa - 10 August He picked a friend whom he had known at Oxford, Anthony Sampson as editor. Anthony Terrell Seward Sampson ( 3 August 1926 &ndash 18 December 2004) was a British writer and journalist Later Sir Tom Hopkinson was the editor. Sir Thomas Hopkinson ( April 19, 1905 – June 20, 1990) was a British journalist picture magazine editor author and teacher

Sylvester Stein edited the magazine from 1955 until 1958. Sylvester Stein edited the Drum magazine from 1955 until 1958 Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The deteriorating political situation resulted in him leaving for England. He was a white South African Jew which resulted in an empathy for his journalist's frustrations. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ His book Who killed Mr Drum? describes the life and times of Drum magazine.

Drum's heyday in the 1950s fell between the Defiance Campaign and the tragedy at Sharpeville. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Defiance Campaign against Unjust Laws was presented by the African National Congress (ANC at a conference held in Bloemfontein South Africa in December Sharpeville is a township situated between two large industrial cities of Vanderbijlpark and Vereeniging in southern Gauteng, South Africa This was the decade of potential Black emergence, the decade when the Freedom Charter was written and the decade when the ANC alliance launched the Defiance Campaign. The Freedom Charter was the statement of core principles of the South African Congress Alliance which consisted of the African National Congress and its allies the South The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions The aim was to promote an equal society. The Nationalist government responded with apartheid crackdowns and treason trials.

It was also the decade of the movement to the cities, of Sophiatown, of Black jazz, the jazz opera King Kong with a Black cast, an adoption of American culture, of shebeens (illegal drinking dens) and flamboyant American style gangsters (tsotsis) with chrome-laden American cars who spoke a slang called Tsotsitaal. Sophiatown (pronounced with a long stressed i) (also known as Sof'town or Kofifi) is a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa Tsotsitaal, or isiCamtho, is a variety of languages mainly spoken in the townships of Gauteng province in South Africa, such

It was a time of optimism and hope. Drum was a "record of naivety, optimism, frustration, defiance, courage, dancing, drink, jazz, gangsters, exile and death". [1]

Drum described the world of the urban Black; the culture, the colour, dreams, ambitions, hopes and struggles. Lewis Nkosi described Drum's young writers as the new African[s] cut adrift from the tribal reserve - urbanised, eager, fast-talking and brash. [2]

Peter Magubane described the atmosphere in the newsroom. Peter Magubane (born 1932 is a South African Photographer. Overview He was born in Vrededorp now Pageview, a suburb in Johannesburg "Drum was a different home; it did not have apartheid. There was no discrimination in the offices of Drum magazine. It was only when you left Drum and entered the world outside of the main door that you knew you were in apartheid land. But while you were inside Drum magazine, everyone there was a family. " [3]

Drum's stellar cast of Black journalists included such names as Henry (Mr Drum) Nxumalo, Can Themba, Todd Matshikiza, Nat Nakasa, Lewis Nkosi and others such as William Bloke Modisane, Arthur Maimane, and Casey Motsisi. Henry Nxumalo, (1917 – 1957 also known as Henry "Mr Drum" Nxumalo was a South African Journalist. Daniel Canodoise Themba, (1942 – 1968 better known as Can Themba was a South African short-story Author. Todd Tozama Matshikiza (b 1921 d 1968 was a South African Jazz Pianist, Composer and Journalist. Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa (b 1937 d 1965 better known as Nat Nakasa was a South African Short story Writer and Journalist. Lewis Nkosi (born 1936 is a South African writer and essayist William Modisane ( August 28, 1923 &mdash March 1, 1986) better known as Bloke Modisane was a South African Writer John Arthur Mogale Maimane (b 1932 d 2005 better known as Arthur Maimane was a South African Journalist. Karobo Moses Motsisi (b 1932 d 1977 better known as Casey Motsisi or Casey 'Kid' Motsisi was a South African Short story Writer Together, they were known as the Drum Boys. This group lived by the dictum live fast, die young and have a good-looking corpse. [1] Most of these journalists went on to publish works in their own right. [4] The other journalists who worked there include Bessie Head [5], Lionel Ngakane [6] and Jenny Joseph [7]

It wasn’t only the writers – the pictures were also important. Bessie Emery Head ( July 6, 1937 - April 17, 1986) is usually considered Botswana 's most important writer Lionel Ngakane ( July 17, 1920 – November 26, 2003) was a South African Filmmaker. Jenny Joseph (born 7 May 1932) is an English Poet. Her poem Warning ("When I am an old woman I shall wear purple/With a red The main photographer and artistic director was Jürgen Schadeberg who arrived in South Africa in 1950 after leaving a war ravaged Berlin. Jürgen Schadeberg (born 1931) is a South African Photographer and Artist. He became one of the rare European photographers to photograph the daily lives of Black people. He trained a generation of rising black photographers e. g. Ernest Cole, Bob Gosani and later Peter Magubane. Ernest Cole (b 1940 d 1990 was a South African Photographer. Overview Ernest Cole was born in Eersterust in Pretoria. Bob Gosani (b 1934 d 1972 was a South African Photographer. Overview Bob Gosani started off at Drum magazine as a messenger but soon Peter Magubane (born 1932 is a South African Photographer. Overview He was born in Vrededorp now Pageview, a suburb in Johannesburg Magubane joined Drum because "they were dealing with social issues that affected black people in South Africa. I wanted to be part of that magazine". [8] Alf Khumalo was another well-known photographer on the staff. Alfred Khumalo (born 1930 (better known as Alf Khumalo) (also spelled Kumalo) is a South African Photographer.

Henry Nxumalo was the first journalist and specialised in investigative reporting. For example, he got a job on a potato farm where he exposed the exploitative conditions (almost slave-like) under which the Black labourers worked. In 1957, Nxumalo was murdered while investigating an abortion racket. Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) [9]

Todd Matshikiza wrote witty and informed jazz articles about the burgeoning township jazz scene.

Dolly (the agony aunt) helped many a confused, young lover to get their lives back on course. The Dear Dolly letters were written by Dolly Rathebe, a popular actress, pin-up and singer. Dolly Rathebe ( OIS) (1928&ndash2004 was a South African musician and actress In reality, they were ghosted by other Drum writes, notably Casey Motsisi. Karobo Moses Motsisi (b 1932 d 1977 better known as Casey Motsisi or Casey 'Kid' Motsisi was a South African Short story Writer

Arthur Maimane, under the pseudonym Arthur Mogale wrote a regular series entitled The Chief where he described gangster incidents he had heard about in the shebeens. Chiefly in Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Zimbabwe, a shebeen ( Irish: sibín) is an illicit bar or Don Mattera, a leading Sophiatown gangster took exception to this. Donato Francisco Mattera (b 1935 Western Native Township (now Westbury Johannesburg, South Africa) better known as Don Mattera, is a South African Sophiatown (pronounced with a long stressed i) (also known as Sof'town or Kofifi) is a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa The gangsters were pissed off with him and there was a word out that we should wipe this guy off. [1]

The office telephonist, David Sibeko, became leader of the Pan-African Congress. David Maphgumzana Sibeko ( August 26, 1938 in Johannesburg, South Africa &ndash June 12, 1979 The Pan-African Congress was a series of five meetings in 1919 1921 1923 1927 and 1945 that were intended to address the issues facing Africa due to European colonization [10]

Drum also encouraged fiction. Es'kia Mphahlele (the fiction editor from 1955 to 1957) encouraged and guided this. Es'kia Mphahlele (Born December 17] 1919 is a South African writer academic arts activist and Afrikan Humanist Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) During that time over 90 short stories were published by such authors as Todd Matshikiza, Bloke Modisane, Henry Nxumalo, Casey Motsisi, Arthur Maimane (alias Mogale), Lewis Nkosi, Nat Nakasa, Can Themba and others. Todd Tozama Matshikiza (b 1921 d 1968 was a South African Jazz Pianist, Composer and Journalist. William Modisane ( August 28, 1923 &mdash March 1, 1986) better known as Bloke Modisane was a South African Writer Henry Nxumalo, (1917 – 1957 also known as Henry "Mr Drum" Nxumalo was a South African Journalist. Karobo Moses Motsisi (b 1932 d 1977 better known as Casey Motsisi or Casey 'Kid' Motsisi was a South African Short story Writer Lewis Nkosi (born 1936 is a South African writer and essayist Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa (b 1937 d 1965 better known as Nat Nakasa was a South African Short story Writer and Journalist. Daniel Canodoise Themba, (1942 – 1968 better known as Can Themba was a South African short-story Author. These stories described the people of the street; jazz musicians, gangsters, shebeen queens and con men and were written in a uniquely Sophiatown-influenced blend of English and Tsotsitaal. Chiefly in Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Zimbabwe, a shebeen ( Irish: sibín) is an illicit bar or Tsotsitaal, or isiCamtho, is a variety of languages mainly spoken in the townships of Gauteng province in South Africa, such This creative period has been called the Sophiatown renaissance. [11]

The backbone of the magazine was crime, investigative reporting, sex (especially if across the colour line) and sport. This was fleshed out by imaginative photography.

The formula worked and made for compulsive reading. Each issue of Drum was read by up to 9 people, passed from hand to hand on the streets, in the clubs or on the trains. It became a symbol of Black urban life. 240,000 copies were distributed each month across Africa. [12] This was more than any other African magazine.

Drum was distributed in 8 different countries viz. Union of South Africa, Central African Federation, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. Constitutional origins It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation — economically electorally and militarily The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Tanganyika is the name of an East African territory lying between the largest of the African great lakes Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast to the west Burkina Faso to the north Togo to the Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. [12]

Sadly, because of the immovable force of apartheid the promise and dreams it described turned to frustration and despair. Sophiatown was bulldozed and the writers died or went overseas. [13] The creative output of the Sophiatown Renaissance came to an end as the bulldozers rolled in. [14] Drum slowly lost its pre-emptive position and faded.

In 1984 Naspers acquired Drum Publications, the publisher of City Press, Drum and True Love & Family. Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) Naspers ( is a South Africa -based Multinational media company with principal operations in Electronic media (including pay-television internet and instant-messaging

Drum claims to be the sixth largest magazine in Africa.

See also

External links

References and notes

  1. ^ a b c Mike Nicol (1991). Drum is a 2004 film about a South African journalist Henry Nxumalo who works for Drum magazine Henry Nxumalo, (1917 – 1957 also known as Henry "Mr Drum" Nxumalo was a South African Journalist. Come Back Africa is a 1959 film created by Lionel Rogosin working with the staff of the legendary Drum magazine in South Africa in Sophiatown (pronounced with a long stressed i) (also known as Sof'town or Kofifi) is a suburb of Johannesburg, South Africa Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Lionel Rogosin ( January 22, 1924 - December 8, 2000) was a maverick American filmmaker who worked outside the Hollywood system in William Modisane ( August 28, 1923 &mdash March 1, 1986) better known as Bloke Modisane was a South African Writer Lewis Nkosi (born 1936 is a South African writer and essayist Have you seen Drum recently? is a 1998 film which uses photographs from the Drum archives to tell the story of the magazine and documents its contribution Jürgen Schadeberg (born 1931) is a South African Photographer and Artist. Lionel Rogosin ( January 22, 1924 - December 8, 2000) was a maverick American filmmaker who worked outside the Hollywood system in A good-looking corpse. London: Secker & Warburg. ISBN 0-43-630986-6.  
  2. ^ "Lewis Nkosi", answers. com. Retrieved on 2007-02-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum  
  3. ^ Barlow, Peter. "To the point with Peter Magubane", Activate, Rhodes University, 2006-08-14. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Retrieved on 2007-05-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João  
  4. ^ Can Themba wrote The Suit and a selection of his output appears in The world of Can Themba, a selection of Nat Nakasa's output appears in The World of Nat Nakasa, Lewis Nkosi wrote Home and Exile and Mating Birds among others, Bloke Modisane wrote Blame me on history , Arthur Maimane wrote Hate No More and a selection of Casey Motsisi's output appears in Casey & Co . Daniel Canodoise Themba, (1942 – 1968 better known as Can Themba was a South African short-story Author. Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa (b 1937 d 1965 better known as Nat Nakasa was a South African Short story Writer and Journalist. Lewis Nkosi (born 1936 is a South African writer and essayist William Modisane ( August 28, 1923 &mdash March 1, 1986) better known as Bloke Modisane was a South African Writer John Arthur Mogale Maimane (b 1932 d 2005 better known as Arthur Maimane was a South African Journalist. Karobo Moses Motsisi (b 1932 d 1977 better known as Casey Motsisi or Casey 'Kid' Motsisi was a South African Short story Writer Refer to the individual entries for the ISBN numbers.
  5. ^ Almost all of Head's important work was written in Serowe, in particular, the three Serowe novels When Rain Clouds Gather, Maru, and A Question of Power. Serowe (population approx 90 000 was famed as Botswana 's largest village She also wrote short stories, including the collection The Collector of Treasures.
  6. ^ Ngakane is most remembered for his 1966 short film Jemima and Johnny inspired by riots in Notting Hill.
  7. ^ Joseph's best known poem, Warning, was written in 1961 and was included in her 1974 collection Rose In the Afternoon and in the Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse. The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse was a Poetry anthology edited by Philip Larkin, and published in 1973 by Oxford University Press
  8. ^ Cook, John. "One-Man Truth Squad", Mother Jones, 1997-06-01. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Retrieved on 2007-05-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.  
  9. ^ "Henry "Mr Drum" Nxumalo (1917 - 1957)", National Orders awards, 29 September 2005. Retrieved on 2007-02-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  10. ^ Herbstein, Denis. "Arthur Maimane", Guardian, 2005-07-15. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Retrieved on 2007-02-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum  
  11. ^ Masilela, Ntongela; University of California. "Black South African literature from the ‘Sophiatown Renaissance' to ‘Black Mamba Rising': Transformations and Variations from the 1950s to the 1980s", Center for Black Studies, 1990-04-30. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Retrieved on 2007-03-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a  
  12. ^ a b "Drum Beat in Africa", Time, Time magazine, 1959-09-07. Retrieved on 2007-02-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule  
  13. ^ Can Themba died of alcohol-related complications in exile in Swaziland, Todd Matshikiza died in exile in Zambia, Nat Nakasa committed suicide in New York and William Bloke Modisane died in exile in West Germany. Daniel Canodoise Themba, (1942 – 1968 better known as Can Themba was a South African short-story Author. The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E Todd Tozama Matshikiza (b 1921 d 1968 was a South African Jazz Pianist, Composer and Journalist. The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. Nathaniel Ndazana Nakasa (b 1937 d 1965 better known as Nat Nakasa was a South African Short story Writer and Journalist. The City of New York William Modisane ( August 28, 1923 &mdash March 1, 1986) better known as Bloke Modisane was a South African Writer West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (
  14. ^ Essop Patel (Editor). The World of Nat Nakasa: Selected Writings of the Late Nat Nakasa (Staffrider Series, No 27). Ravan Pr of South Africa. ISBN 086975050X.  
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