Series on Celtic mythology

Celtic polytheism Celtic deities

Ancient Celtic religion

Druids · Bards · Vates British Iron Age religion Celtic religious patterns Gallo-Roman religion Romano-British religion

Brythonic mythology

Welsh mythology Breton mythology Mabinogion · Taliesin Cad Goddeu Trioedd Ynys Prydein Matter of Britain · King Arthur

Gaelic mythology

Irish mythology Scottish mythology Hebridean mythology Tuatha Dé Danann Mythological Cycle Ulster Cycle Fenian Cycle Immrama · Echtrae

See also

Celts · Gaul Galatia · Celtiberians Early history of Ireland Prehistoric Scotland Prehistoric Wales Index of related articles This box: view • talk • edit

A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies of Western Europe, Britain and Ireland. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world They were suppressed by the Roman government and, later, the arrival of Christianity. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Druids combined the duties of priest, arbitrator, healer, scholar, and magistrate. Arbitration, a form of Alternative dispute resolution (ADR is a legal technique for the resolution of Disputes outside the Courts wherein the A magistrate is a judicial officer In Common law systems a magistrate usually has limited authority to administer and enforce the Law. Despite neo-druidic believers, it is unknown whether or not women were historically allowed to serve as druids. Evidence both for and to the contrary is cited by writers of the neo-druid revival.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Etymology 3 History 3.1 Roman sources 3.1.1 Cæsar 3.1.2 Other writers in Antiquity 3.1.3 Pomponius Mela 3.1.4 Cicero 3.1.5 Diodorus 3.1.6 Imperial decrees 3.1.7 Strabo 3.1.8 Tacitus 3.1.9 Late Roman 4 Archaeological evidence 4.1 Medieval sources 5 In Christian literature 6 Late druidic survivals 7 Druidic Revival 7.1 Neo-druidism 8 Questions of magic 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Overview

The earliest records of the name druidae (Δρυΐδαι) is found in the works of Greek writers such as Sotion of Alexandria, who was cited by Diogenes Laertius in the third century CE. Sotion of Alexandria (fl c 200 BC &ndash 170 BC was a Greek Doxographer and biographer and an important source for Diogenes Laertius. Diogenes Laërtius ( Greek:, Diogénes Laértios) the biographer of the Greek Philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname ^[1]

The Celtic communities Druids served were polytheistic. Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals They also show signs of animism, in their reverence for various aspects of the natural world, such as the land, sea and sky,^[2] and their veneration of other aspects of nature, such as sacred trees and groves (the oak and hazel were particularly revered), tops of hills, streams, lakes and plants such as the mistletoe. Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals A major event leading to the eventual formation of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, took place in what is commonly referred to within the Church as The The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of Trees and Shrubs in the Genus Quercus (from Latin The hazels ( Corylus) are a genus of Deciduous Trees and large Shrubs native to the temperate northern hemisphere A stream is a body of Water with a current, confined within a bed and stream-banks A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the Mistletoe is the common name for a group of hemi-parasitic Plants in the order Santalales that grow attached to and within the ^[3] Fire was regarded as a symbol of several divinities and was associated with cleansing. Purported ritual killing and human sacrifice were aspects of druidic culture that shocked classical writers. ^[4]

The druids looked for omens in the shapes of the clouds, and sought "signs and seasons" in the movements of the sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth Their calendar year was governed by the lunar, solar, vegetative and herding cycles.

The four main Gaelic holidays observed by Gaelic druids and their people included

• Imbolg (February 1), which marked the earliest signs of the coming spring
• Beltain (May 1), a time of community gatherings and moving of the herds to summer pastures
• Lughnasadh to celebrate the ripening of first fruits and the many-skilled deity Lugh
• Samhain to recognize the end of harvest, the time of sacrifice, and the lowering of the barrier between the world of the living and that of the dead

The timing for these four festivals was determined by seasonal changes in the natural world, or possibly by combined lunar and solar calendar. Imbolc is one of the four principal festivals of the Irish calendar, celebrated among Gaelic peoples and some other Celtic cultures either at the beginning Beltane is the anglicized spelling of Bealtaine ( or Bealltainn ( the Gaelic names for either the month of May or the festival that takes place on Lughnasadh ( Old Irish, pronounced luɣnəsəð Modern Irish Lá Lúnasa; Modern Gaelic Lùnastal) is a Gaelic Lugh (ˈluː modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish Deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant Samhain (ˈsaʊn or /ˈsɑːwɪn/ Irish /ˈsˠaunʲ/ from the Old Irish samain) is the word for November in a few Gaelic languages In modern times, remnants of these festivals are still observed by the descendants of the ancient Celts, though often in a Christianised or secular manner.

Modern attempts at reconstructing, reinventing or reimagining the practices of the druids are called Neo-druidism. Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents is a form of modern Spirituality or Religion that promotes

Etymology

The etymology given by the editors of the American Heritage Dictionary (4th ed. ), based on Pokorny's Indo-germanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, is as follows: "druid" comes to English from Latin druides (pronounced [druˈides]), which is the same as the term used by Ancient Greek writers, the first to discuss the Celts: Δρυίδης (Druides). The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c ^[5] This is associated via folk etymology with "drus" (δρύς, pronounced [drys], meaning "oak tree") and -ides (-ιδης meaning "the son of" (as per Aristides)). The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of Trees and Shrubs in the Genus Quercus (from Latin Aristides or Aristeides ( Greek, 530–468 BC was an Athenian soldier and statesman The Latin and Greek terms trace via Proto-Celtic *druwid (also reconstructed as *druwis and *druwids) to the Proto-Indo-European roots *deru- and *weid-. Phonological reconstruction Consonants The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic Consonants may be summarised as follows

*deru- is reconstructed as meaning "to be firm, solid, steadfast". ^[6] Thus, the word acquired specialised senses meaning "tree", "wood", and things made from, or analogised to, trees and wood. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Modern words in English that trace to *deru include: tree, truce, true/truth, troth/betroth, trust, tryst, tray, trough, trim, tar, durum, duress, endure, drupe, dryad, dendrite, philodendron, and deodar. Trust is a relationship of reliance A trusted party is presumed to seek to fulfill policies, ethical codes Law and their previous promises Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter Durum wheat or macaroni wheat (also spelled Durhum Triticum durum or Triticum turgidum durum) is the only Tetraploid species of Wheat In Botany, a drupe is a Fruit in which an outer fleshy part ( Exocarp, or skin and Mesocarp, or flesh surrounds a shell (the pit The DRYAD Numeral Cipher/Authentication System (KTC 1400 D is a simple paper Cryptographic system currently in use by the U Dendrites (from Greek δένδρον déndron, “tree” are the branched projections of a Neuron that act to conduct the electrochemical Philodendron is a large genus of Flowering plants from the arum family ( Araceae) consisting of close to 900 or more species according to TROPICOS (a Cedrus deodara (Deodar Cedar Himalayan Cedar or Deodar Hindi, Sanskrit: देवदार devadāru; Chinese: 雪松

*weid- is reconstructed as meaning "to see"^[7] and, by extension and figurative use, also refers to seers, wisdom, and knowledge - especially secret knowledge or wisdom that requires a kind of deeper sight (or "second sight") to ascertain. Modern English words that trace to *weid include: twit, guide, guise, wise/wisdom, wit, witenagemot (the "wit" portion), kaleidoscope (the "eid" portion), view, visa, visage, vision, review, revise, improvise, supervise, history/story, and veda. Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity Wit is a form of intellectual Humour. A wit (person is someone skilled in making witty remarks The Witenagemot or the Witena gemot (ˈwɪtənəgɪˌməʊt also known as the Witan (more properly the title of its members was a political institution in A kaleidoscope is a tube of Mirrors containing loose colored Beads Pebbles or other small colored objects A view is what can be Seen in a range of vision. View may also be used as a Synonym of point of view in the "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation.

Greek and Latin druides bear comparison with Old Irish druídecht (pronounced [ˈ'driː.ðʲext]/), which yields Modern Irish draoiocht (pronounced [ˈ'driː.oxt]/), "magic. " The Welsh dryw (/drɨu/), "seer", may be cognate. Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from

The Modern Irish for druid is drúa (/'druːə/), from Old Irish druí (/druiː/); which also produced Irish draoi (/'driː/), "magician" and Modern Gaelic druidh (/drij/), meaning "enchanter" and draoidh (/drɯːj/), "magician. Irish (ga ''Gaeilge'' is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish. Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig) is a member of the Goidelic branch of Celtic languages. "

History

From what little we know of late druidic practices, it appears deeply traditional and conservative, in the sense that druids were conserving repositories of culture and lore for their communities. It is impossible now to judge whether this continuity had deep historical roots and originated in the social transformations of the late La Tène culture, or whether there had been a discontinuity and then a religious innovation. The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site

Greek and Roman writers on the Celts commonly made at least passing reference to druids, though before Caesar's report merely as "barbarian philosophers";^[8] They were not concerned with ethnology or comparative religion^[9] and consequently our historical knowledge of druids is very limited. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart, and Caesar remarked that twenty years were required to complete the course of study. There was a very advanced druidic teaching centre on Anglesey (Ynys Môn), an island off the northwest coast of Wales. History There are numerous Megalithic monuments and Menhirs present on Anglesey testifying to the presence of mankind in prehistory Druids are said to have journeyed there from all over Europe to learn their secrets, but what was taught there, or at other centres, is conjecture. Of the druids' oral literature (sacred songs, formulas for prayers and incantations, rules of divination and magic) not one certifiably ancient verse is known to have survived, even in translation, nor is there a legend that can be called "purely" druidic, without a Roman and/or Christian overlay or interpretation. Oral literature corresponds in the sphere of the spoken (oral word to Literature as literature operates in the domain of the written word Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Surviving folklore in the modern Celtic nations and the Celtic diaspora embodies similar themes and practices; however there is no way to trace the origins of these practices or customs conclusively to the druids. Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age Celtic nations are areas of modern northwest Europe which identify themselves with the Celtic cultures specifically speakers of Celtic languages.

Roman sources

The nineteenth-century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the Gallic Wars, that under cultural-military pressure from Rome, the druids formed the core of first-century BCE resistance among the Gauls was examined and dismissed before World War II,^[10] though it remains current in folk history. The Gallic Wars were a series of Military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western

Cæsar

Cæsar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, book VI, gives the first surviving^[11] and the fullest account of the druids, whom, in an apparent contradiction of the social importance he alleges for them, he has scarcely any occasion to mention elsewhere,^[12] though Caesar is generally at pains to explain political situations that affected the progress of his narrative. Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. ^[13] In his single excursus on druids, based in part on Eratosthenes and other Greeks,^[14] Caesar notes that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included either among the druids or among the nobles (equites), indicating that they formed two classes. Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and The druids constituted the learned priestly class (disciplina), and as guardians of the unwritten ancient customary law they had the power of executing judgments, among which exclusion from society was the most dreaded. Druids were not a hereditary caste, though they enjoyed exemption from military service as well as from payment of taxes. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was protracted.

All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports,^[15] the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earlier writers; by the time of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script. Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Vulgar Latin of the late Roman Empire became As a result of this prohibition — and of the decline of Gaulish in favour of Latin — no druidic documents, if there ever were any, have survived.

"The principal point of their doctrine", says Caesar, "is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another" (see metempsychosis). Reincarnation Metempsychosis is a philosophical term in the Greek language referring to the belief of Transmigration of the soul, especially its Reincarnation Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor (Greek, born circa 105 BCE) had already written of the Druids as philosophers and called this doctrine "Pythagorean":

"The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body. "

Caesar wrote:

"With regard to their actual course of studies, the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructability of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed. Subsidiary to the teachings of this main principle, they hold various lectures and discussions on astronomy, on the extent and geographical distribution of the globe, on the different branches of natural philosophy, and on many problems connected with religion". Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study

—Julius Cesar, "De Bello Gallico", VI, 13

This led Diodorus Siculus and others to the unlikely conclusion that the druids may have been influenced by the teachings of Pythagoras,^[16] One modern scholar has speculated that Buddhist missionaries had been sent by the Indian king Ashoka. "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi ^[17] A more likely explanation is that Druids, Plato, Pythagoras and Buddha were drawing on a common Indo-European belief. ^[18]

Caesar noted the druidic doctrine of the original ancestor of the tribe, whom he referred to as Dispater, or Father Hades. Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient Linguistically Dis Pater is related to Jupiter (Jovis Pater), from Proto-Indo-European word Dyeus, but Caesar is apparently indicating the God of the Underworld - the "Fairy King". In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. * Dyēus (also * Dyēus ph2ter) is the reconstructed chief deity of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon.

Caesar also reported that druids could punish members of Celtic society by a form of "excommunication", preventing them from attending religious festivals. As these religious festivals were common and well-attended, this was an effective means of excluding punished persons from society.

Many historians argue^[19] that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society may report an idealised tradition, based on the society of the second century BCE, before the pan-Gallic confederation led by the Arverni was smashed in 121 BCE, followed by the invasions of Teutones and Cimbri, rather than on the demoralised and disunited Gaul of his own time, Norman J. The Arverni were a Gallic tribe that inhabited the present-day region of Clermont-Ferrand, France. The Teutons or Teutones (from Proto-Germanic * Þeudanōz) were mentioned as a Germanic tribe by Greek and Roman authors The Cimbri were a Celtic or Germanic tribe who together with the Teutones and the Ambrones threatened the Roman Republic in the late DeWitt surmised. ^[20] John Creighton has speculated that in Britain the druidic social influence was already in decline by the mid-first century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power structures embodied in paramount chieftains,^[21] while others^[22] find the decline in the context of Roman conquest itself.

Other historians argue^[23] that despite Caesar's execution of Dumnorix, his problem dealt with anti-Romans and not just druids. Historically speaking, the brother of Dumnorix, Diviciacus, was a good friend to Cicero and Rome. Diviciacus was the only specifically identified individual druid in any classical literary source.

Other writers in Antiquity

Writers such as Diodorus and Strabo, with less firsthand experience than Caesar, were of the opinion that the Celtic priestly order or class included "druids, bards and vates (soothsayer)". Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2 The earliest Latin writers used vates to denote "prophets" and soothsayers in general the word fell into disuse in Latin until it was revived by Virgil

Caesar also claimed that a general assembly of the order was held once every year within the territories of the Carnutes in Gaul. The Carnutes ( Latin Carnuti) a powerful Celtic people in the heart of independent Gaul, dwelled in a particularly extensive territory between

Pomponius Mela

Pomponius Mela^[24] is the first author who says that the druids' instruction was secret, and was carried on in caves and forests. Pomponius Mela, who wrote around AD 43, was the earliest Roman Geographer. Certain groves within forests were sacred, and the Romans and Christians alike cut them down and burned the wood. Human sacrifice has sometimes been attributed to druidism. Human sacrifice is the act of Homicide (the Killing of one or several Human beings in the context of a Religious ritual ( ritual killing ^[25] While this may be Roman propaganda, human sacrifice was an old European inheritance and the Gauls may have offered human sacrifices, whether of criminals or, to judge from Roman reports, of war captives.

Cicero

Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known by the name of druids; he had made the acquaintance of one Diviciacus, an Aeduan also known to Caesar. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The Augur was a priest and official in the classical world especially Ancient Rome and Etruria. Diviciacus or Divitiacus of the Aedui is Latinised name of the only Druid from Antiquity whose existence is historically attested Aedui, Haedui or Hedui (Gr Aidouoi) are Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar ( Saone) and Liger ^[26]

Diodorus

Diodorus Siculus asserts, on unnamed sources, that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by a druid, for they were the intermediaries. He also claims that before a battle they often threw themselves between two armies to bring about peace.

Diodorus remarks upon the importance of prophets in druidic ritual: "These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power… and in very important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are able to read the future. " These Greco-Roman comments are supported to some extent by archaeological excavations. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation At Ribemont in Picardy, France, there were revealed pits filled with human bones, with thigh bones deliberately fixed into rectangular patterns. Picardie ( English: Picardy is one of the 26 regions of France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. In humans the thigh is the area between the Pelvis and the Knee. This shrine is believed to have been razed to the ground by Julius Caesar while he was subduing Gaul. At a bog in Lindow, Cheshire, England was discovered a body which may also have been the victim of a druidic ritual, but it is just as likely that he was an executed criminal. Lindow Common is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI located on the western edge of the town of Wilmslow, Cheshire in the northwest of England Cheshire (or archaically the County of Chester) is a county in North West England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The body is now on display at the British Museum, London. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

Imperial decrees

Druids were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of Augustus forbade Roman citizens to practice "druidical" rites. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Under Tiberius, Pliny reported,^[27] the druids were suppressed—along with diviners and physicians— by a decree of the Senate, but this had to be renewed by Claudius in 54 AD. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman A decree is an order made by a Head of state or government and having the force of Law. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to

Strabo

In Strabo, we find the druids still acting as arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer dealt with cases of murder. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Despite being arbiters in public manner, Strabo suggest that druids were "the most just of men. "^[28]

Tacitus

Tacitus, in describing the attack made on the island of Mona (Anglesey, Ynys Môn in Welsh) by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. History There are numerous Megalithic monuments and Menhirs present on Anglesey testifying to the presence of mankind in prehistory Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, also spelled Paullinus, (flourished 1st century) was a Roman general The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut down. A major event leading to the eventual formation of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, took place in what is commonly referred to within the Church as The

Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of Druidism in Britain, but maintains a hostile point of view. Druids in the eyes of Tacitus were seen as ignorant savages^[29] who "deemed it indeed a duty to cover their altars with the blood of captives and to consult their deities through human entrails. "

Late Roman

After the first century CE the continental druids disappeared entirely and were referred to only on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for one instance, apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a "race of druids". This article is about the Roman poet Ausonius For John Ausonius the Swedish murderer see John Ausonius.

Archaeological evidence

Druidic associations with the ritual deaths of some of the bog bodies recovered in the British Isles and northern Europe from the Netherlands to Denmark, presented by Anne Ross^[30] is resisted by some historians, such as Jane Webster, who asserted in 1999, "individual druids (let alone druid princes) are unlikely to be identified archaeologically"^[31] A. Bog bodies, also known as bog people, are preserved Human bodies found in sphagnum bogs in Northern Europe, Great Britain and P. Fitzpatrick, in examining astral symbolism on Late Iron Age swords^[32] has expressed difficulties in relating any material culture, even the Coligny calendar with druidic culture. The Gaulish Coligny Calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France ( near Lyon in 1897 along with the head of a bronze statue of Slain bodies as far east as Celtic Galatia and elswhere in Northern and Western Europe are widely cited as evidence of human sacrifice. Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. ^[33]

Medieval sources

The story of Vortigern, as reported by Nennius, provides one of the very few glimpses of druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth behind his text. Vortigern (ˈvɔrtɨɡɝːn also spelled Vortiger and Vortigen and in Welsh Gwrtheyrn was a 5th century warlord in Britain, a leading ruler among Nennius, or Nemnivus, is either of two shadowy personages traditionally associated with the history of Wales. For what it is worth, he asserts that, after being excommunicated by Germanus, the British leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to assist him. Germanus of Auxerre (c 378– 31 July, 448) was a Bishop of Auxerre in Gaul.

In Irish literature, the druids are frequently (and reliably) mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well to those they performed in Gaul (the Modern Irish word for "magic", draíocht, derives from Old Irish druídecht). Irish (ga ''Gaeilge'' is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish. Old Irish is the name given to the oldest form of the Irish language, or rather the Goidelic languages, for which extensive written texts are possessed

The most important Irish documents are contained in manuscripts of the 12th century, but many of the texts themselves go back as far as the 8th century. A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way In these stories, druids usually act as advisers to kings. A king is a male Monarch, or a Head of state, who may or may not depending on the style of government of a nation exercise monarchal powers over a territory usually Once again legendary elements crept in: they were said to have the ability to foretell the future (Bec mac Dé, for example, predicted the death of Diarmait mac Cerbaill more accurately than three Christian saints) and there is little reference to their religious function. In Irish mythology Bec mac Dé ("little son of god" is a Druid who is known as the greatest seer of all time Diarmait mac Cerbaill (died c 565 was King of Tara or High King of Ireland. They do not appear to form any corporation, nor do they seem to be exempt from military service.

In the Ulster Cycle, Cathbad, chief druid at the court of Conchobar, king of Ulster, is accompanied by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of learning his art. Texts in translation Most of the important Ulster Cycle tales can be found in the following publications Thomas Kinsella, The Táin, Oxford University Cathbad ( Old Irish pronunciation /ˈkaθvað/ is the chief Druid in the court of Conchobar mac Nessa in the Ulster Cycle of Irish Mythology Conchobar mac Nessa (son of Ness) is the king of Ulster in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. The Ulaid (pron /'ʊləɣ′/ were a people of early north-eastern Ireland, who gave their name to the modern province of Ulster: modern Irish Cúige Cathbad is present at the birth of the famous tragic heroine Deirdre, and prophesies what sort of a woman she will be, and the strife that will accompany her, although Conchobar ignores him. Deirdre or Derdriu is the foremost tragic heroine in Irish mythology. The following description of the band of Cathbad's druids occurs in the epic tale, the Táin Bó Cúailnge: The attendant raises his eyes towards the heavens and observes the clouds and answers the band around him. Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond They all raise their eyes towards the heavens, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland. We are further told that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the druids had spoken.

Also in the Táin Bó Cúailnge, before setting out on her great expedition against Ulster, Medb, queen of Connacht, consults her druids regarding the outcome of the war. Medb ( Old Irish spelling mɛðv Meḋḃ Meaḋḃ modern Meadhbh mɛɣv reformed modern Irish Meabh, Meːv sometimes Anglicised Maeve or Maev They hold up the march by two weeks, waiting for an auspicious omen. An omen (also called portent or presage) is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the Future, often signifying the advent of change Druids were also said to have magical skills: when the hero Cúchulainn returned from the Other World, after having been enticed there by a fairy woman or goddess, named Fand, whom he is now unable to forget, he is given a potion by some druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and which also rids his wife Emer of the pangs of jealousy. Cúchulainn /kuːˈxʊlɪnʲ/ ( ( Irish for "Hound of Culann " also spelled Cú Chulainn, Cú Chulaind, Cúchulain, or Fand is an early Irish sea goddess later described as a "Queen of the Fairies " Emer, or in modern Irish Eimear, daughter of Forgall Monach, is the wife of the hero Cúchulainn in the Ulster Cycle of Irish

More remarkable still is the story of Étaín. For the French town see Etain In Irish mythology Étaín (sometimes spelt Edain, Aideen, Etaoin This lady, later the wife of Eochaid Airem, High King of Ireland, was in a former existence the beloved of the god Midir, who again seeks her love and carries her off. Eochu Airem ("the ploughman" son of Finn was according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition a High King of Ireland. A High King of Ireland ( Ard Rí na hÉireann) is a historical or legendary figure who claimed lordship over the whole of Ireland. In Irish mythology Midir (or Midhir or Mider) was a son of The Dagda of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The king has recourse to his druid, Dalgn, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of yew inscribed with ogham characters. Ogham (ogam ˈɔɣam Modern Irish or, English) is an Early Medieval Alphabet used primarily to represent the Old Irish language (and

In other texts the druids are able to produce insanity. Mug Ruith, a legendary druid of Munster, wore a hornless bull's hide and an elaborate feathered headdress and had the ability to fly and conjure storms. Mug Ruith (or Mogh Roith, "slave of the wheel" is a figure in Irish mythology, a powerful blind Druid of Munster who lived on Munster ( Irish: An Mhumhain, ənˈvuːnʲ Cúige Mumhan or Mumha) is the southernmost of the four Provinces of Ireland. A storm is any disturbed state of an astronomical body's atmosphere, especially affecting its surface and strongly implying Severe weather.

In Christian literature

In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In Adamnan's vita of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of Lóegaire mac Néill, the High King of Ireland, at the coming of Saint Patrick. Saint Adomnán of Iona (627/8 &ndash 704 was Abbot of Iona (679-704 Hagiographer, statesman and clerical lawyer he was the author of the most Lóegaire ( Floruit 5th century (died c 462 also Lóeguire, is said to have been been a son of Niall of the Nine Hostages. A High King of Ireland ( Ard Rí na hÉireann) is a historical or legendary figure who claimed lordship over the whole of Ireland. Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint Columba by raising clouds and mist. Saint Columba may refer to Columba of Scotland Saint Columba (the Virgin, also known as Saint Columba of Cornwall Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a druid made an airbe drtiad (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word druí is always used to render the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his druid. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Similarly, a life of St Beuno states that when he died he had a vision of 'all the saints and druids'. Saint Beuno (died 640 was a 7th century Welsh holy man and Abbot of Clynnog Fawr in Gwynedd, on the Llŷn peninsula.

Once the public ordination of Christian bishops in strongly pagan territories was possible, it was essential for a fourth-century bishop to demonstrate powers comparable to a druid's. Sulpicius Severus' Vita of Martin of Tours relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites of sacrifice, "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering. Sulpicius Severus (c 363 &ndash between 420 and 425 wrote the earliest Biography of Saint Martin of Tours. Saint Martin of Tours (Martinus (316/317 Savaria, Pannonia &ndash November 8, 317, Candes, Gaul; buried November Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" " So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavored, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body. " Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus," the hagiographer points out," he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good. "^[34]

This account partly depends on information from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911 and the Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908.

Late druidic survivals

There is some evidence that the druids of Ireland survived into the mid- to late-seventh century. In the De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae of Augustinus Hibernicus (f. Augustine Eriugena, also known equivalently as Augustinus Hibernicus or the Irish Augustine was the contemporary name given to an anonymous Irish writer and 655), there is mention of local magi who teach a doctrine of reincarnation in the form of birds. The word magus was often used in Hiberno-Latin works as a translation of druid. The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish Hiberno-Latin, also called Hisperic Latin, was a playful and learned sort of Latin Literature created and spread by Irish monks during the period ^[35]

Druidic Revival

From the 18th century, England and Wales experienced a revival of interest in the druids. John Aubrey (1626–1697) had been the first modern writer to connect Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments with the druids; since Aubrey's views were confined to his notebooks, the first wide audience for the misconception were readers of William Stukeley (1687–1765) and John Toland (1670-1722), who shaped ideas about the druids current during much of the 19th century. "How these curiosities would be quite forgott did not such idle fellowes as I am putt them down Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury The Rev Dr William Stukeley FRS, FRCP FSA ( November 7, 1687 &ndash March 3, 1765) was an English antiquary who pioneered John Toland ( November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) was an Irish Philosopher. ^[36] The poet William Blake was involved in the revival and may have been an Archdruid of the Ancient Druid Order, which existed from 1717 until it split into two groups in 1964. William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827 was an English poet, painter, and Printmaker. The Druid Order is the current name of a group started by John Toland the Irish Philosopher in 1917 The order never used the title "Archdruid" for any member, but credited Blake as having been its Chosen Chief from 1799 to 1827.

Some modern druidic enthusiasts claim Aubrey was an archdruid in possession of an uninterrupted tradition of druidic knowledge, even though Aubrey, an uninhibited collector of lore and gossip, never entered a corroborating word in his voluminous surviving notebooks. John Toland was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. John Toland ( November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) was an Irish Philosopher. Toland founded the Ancient Druid Order in London in 1717. The Druid Order is the current name of a group started by John Toland the Irish Philosopher in 1917 London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of Romanticism. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Chateaubriand's novel Les Martyrs (1809) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over Pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of well-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 Giovanni Pacini brought druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by Felice Romani about a druid priestess, La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul ("The Priestess of Irminsul"). Opera is an art form in which Singers and Musicians perform a Dramatic work (called an opera which combines a text (called a Libretto Giovanni Pacini ( February 2, 1796. – December 6, 1867) was an Italian Composer, best known for his Operas Trieste (Trieste Slovene and Croatian: Trst; German: Triest) is a city and port in northeastern Italy very near to Felice Romani ( January 31, 1788 — January 28, 1865) was an Italian Poet and scholar of literature and Mythology An Irminsul ( Old Saxon, probably "great/mighty pillar" or "arising pillar" was a kind of Pillar which is attested as playing an important role The most famous druidic opera, Vincenzo Bellini's Norma was a fiasco at La Scala, when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini ( November 3, 1801 &ndash September 23, 1835) was a Sicilian Opera Composer Norma is a tragedia lirica or Opera in two acts by Vincenzo Bellini with Libretto by Felice Romani after Norma ossia The Teatro alla Scala (or La Scala, as it is known in Milan, Italy, is one of the world's most famous Opera houses The theatre was For its libretto, Felice Romani reused some of the pseudo-druidical background of La Sacerdotessa to provide colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. Felice Romani ( January 31, 1788 — January 28, 1865) was an Italian Poet and scholar of literature and Mythology The story was similar to that of Medea, as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by Alexandre Soumet: the diva of Norma's hit aria, "Casta Diva", is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the "grove of the Irmin statue". Medea (Μήδεια Mēdeia) in Greek mythology was the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, niece of Circe, granddaughter of Alexandre Soumet ( February 18, 1788 - March 30, 1845) French Poet, was born at Castelnaudary, Département

In the 19th century, some dubious figures arose with outlandish claims and forged documents they claimed were historical. A central figure in this druidic reinvention, inspired by Henry Hurle, is Edward Williams, better known as Iolo Morganwg. The Ancient Order of Druids (AOD was founded in England in 1781 as a Secret society, rather similar to the Freemasons The tradition in the Order Iolo Morganwg (or Morgannwg in modern spelling ˈjolo morˈganːug was the Bardic name of Edward Williams ( March 10 1747 &ndash His writings, published posthumously as The Iolo Manuscripts (1849) and Barddas (1862), are not considered credible by contemporary scholars. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a "Gorsedd of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. gorsedd (ˈgɔrsɛð plural gorseddau, is a community of Bards The word means "throne" in Welsh. Many scholars deem part or all of Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan sources dating from as far back as 600 A. D. Regardless, it has become impossible to separate the original source material from the fabricated work, and while bits and pieces of the Barddas still turn up in some "Neo-druidic" works, the documents are considered irrelevant by most serious scholars. Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents is a form of modern Spirituality or Religion that promotes

A result of the reinvention, which took place just as modern archaeological and historical methods were being developed, is that, in spite of T. D. Kendrick's dispelling of the pseudo-historical aura that had accrued to druids,^[37] and his introductory assertion in 1927 that "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about druidism";^[38] it has continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids and continues to shape some modern forms of Neo-druidism. Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents is a form of modern Spirituality or Religion that promotes The British Museum website is suitably blunt:

Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Many of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been superseded by later study and discoveries. ^[39]

Neo-druidism

Main article: Neo-druidism

Some strands of modern "Druidism" (also known among some groups as "Modern Druidry"), such as the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids (OBOD), are a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after. Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents is a form of modern Spirituality or Religion that promotes The Order of Bards Ovates & Druids or OBOD is a Neo-Druidic order based in England. Some are monotheistic. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Members of other Neo-druid groups may be Neopagan, occultist, Reconstructionist or non-specifically spiritual. Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden" Polytheistic reconstructionism, or simply Reconstructionism, is an approach to Neopaganism first emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s and gatherig momentum

Questions of magic

The etymology of druid suggests, especially in early Irish historical sources, a context of magicians or enchanters. Tacitus views the ways of the druid and their lifestyle to have an aspect of magic: Tacitus' Annals shows druids as "pouring forth dreadful imprecations. " Much of the evidence that links druids to magic comes from ancient Celtic songs that were sung in order to invoke certain deities in Celtic Polytheism. Celtic polytheism refers to the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Celts, prior to the Christianization of the Celtic-speaking lands Such songs as sung by Aengus^[40] show of certain hyponotic states that druids appear to be in, more than likely due to plant or drug induced trances, similar to the oracles of Delphi in Ancient Greece. For similar names see Angus (disambiguation. In Irish mythology, Aengus ( Áengus, Óengus, Aonghus

Modern day Medieval and Roman historians suggest that the issue of "magic" breaks down to the practise of alchemy and astrology. It would appear that historical sources assert that there was magic occurring, while Roman and medieval historians feel that this issue of "magic" is religious or pagan practices. However, the druids left no written accounts of their own practices, so much of this hypothesis is complete speculation, as is most of the above article.

• Celtic polytheism
• Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism
• Druid (character class)

References

Further reading

• Aldhouse-Green, Miranda J. , Exploring the World of the Druids (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997)
• Ellis, Peter, B. Thames & Hudson (also Thames and Hudson and sometimes T&H for brevity are a Publisher, especially of Art and Illustrated Books , "The Druids" (William B. Eerdmans, 1994)
• Fitzpatrick, A. P,. Who were the Druids? (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997)
• Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007)
• Piggott, Stuart, The Druids (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975)

External links

• Lugodoc's Guide to Druids

Weidenfeld & Nicolson is a British publisher of fiction and reference books

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