Dravidian architecture was a style of architecture that emerged thousands of years ago in the Indian subcontinent. They consist primarily of pyramid shaped temples which are dependent on intricate carved stone in order to create a step design consisting of numerous statues of deities, warriors, kings, and dancers. The majority of the existing buildings are located in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Karnataka. South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India Various kingdoms and empires such as the Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagara Empire amongst the many others have made a substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture through the ages. Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Dravidian styled architecture can also be found in parts of Northeastern Sri Lanka, Maldives, and various parts of Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Tamil people ( or Ceylon Tamils, are an Ethnic group native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka who predominantly speak The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching
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Composition and structure
Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts, arranged in various manners, as afterwards to be explained, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:[1]
1. This article is about a notable Hindu pilgrimage location in Tamil Nadu, India. Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. The principal part, the actual temple itself, is called the Vimana. It is always square in plan, and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; and it contains the cell in which the image of the god or his emblem is placed.
2. The porches or Mantapams, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.
3. Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
4. Pillard halls or Chaultris -- properly Chawadis -- used for various purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.
Besides these, a temple always contains tanks or wells for water -- to be used either for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests -- dwellings for all the various grades of the priest-hood are attached to it, and numerous other buildings for state or convenience. [1]
Influence from different time periods
In Southern India seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times. South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union :
Pallavas
The Pallavas ruled from AD (600-900) and their greatest constructed accomplishments are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram, now located in Tamilnadu. Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery Events By Place World The population of the Earth rises to about 208 million people Events By place Asia Laguna Copperplate Inscription, Kavi script inscribed in Luzon, Philippines, WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Mahabalipuram (மகாபலிபுரம் also known as Mamallapuram (மாமல்லபுரம் Kanchipuram, Kanchi, or Kancheepuram is a city and a Municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India.
Pallavas were pioneers of south Indian architecture. The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidian style belong to the Pallava period. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 - 690 CE and structural temples between 690 - 900 CE. The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Mahabalipuram (மகாபலிபுரம் also known as Mamallapuram (மாமல்லபுரம் There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram built by Nandhivarman is a fine example of the Pallava style temple. Kanchipuram, Kanchi, or Kancheepuram is a city and a Municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of
Cholas
The Chola kings ruled from AD (900-1150) and included Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola who built temples such as the Brihadeshvara Temple and Siva temple of Thanjavur. Events By place Asia Laguna Copperplate Inscription, Kavi script inscribed in Luzon, Philippines, Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after
Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The Brihadishwara Temple ( Tamil: ta பெருவுடையார் கோவில் also known as Rajarajeswaram, at Thanjavur is a brilliant The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. [2]
The temple of Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in much the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. [3]
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints. For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific Lakshmi or Mahalakshmi (pronunciation; Sanskrit: लक्ष्मी lakṣmī) is the Hindu Goddess of Wealth Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. Nataraja /nɐtɐrɑdʒɐ/ ( The Lord (or King of Dance) Tamil கூத்தன் is the dancing posture of the Hindu god Shiva, who performs his [4]
Badami Chalukyas
The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami, Karnataka in the period AD 543 - 753 and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture. The Badami Chalukya Architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the time period of 5th - 8th centuries CE Pattadakal ( Kannada - ಪಟ್ಟದಕಲ್ is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka famous for its group of monuments that are the culmination This is about the year in the Gregorian Calendar Events By Place Europe October 26 — An Earthquake strikes The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Badami (ಬದಾಮಿ formerly known as Vatapi, is a Taluk in the Bagalkot District Events By Topic Religion The doctrine of Apocatastasis is condemned by the Synod of Constantinople Event By Place Asia Samarkand is conquered by Arabs The town of Staraja Ladoga is founded in Russia. Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples The Badami Chalukya Architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the time period of 5th - 8th centuries CE The finest examples of their art are seen in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Pattadakal ( Kannada - ಪಟ್ಟದಕಲ್ is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka famous for its group of monuments that are the culmination Aihole ( Kannada ಐಹೊಳೆ is a town in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Badami (ಬದಾಮಿ formerly known as Vatapi, is a Taluk in the Bagalkot District Over 150 temples remain in the Malaprabha basin. The Malaprabha River ( Kannada ಮಲಪ್ರಭ ನದಿ)is a tributary river of the Krishna River and flows through the state of Karnataka in India
The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, and built between 450 and 700, remain in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. For the area code see Area code 450. Events By Place Eastern Roman Empire August 25 — Marcian is proclaimed Events By Place North America The Mount Edziza volcanic complex erupts in northern British Columbia, Canada. The Malaprabha River ( Kannada ಮಲಪ್ರಭ ನದಿ)is a tributary river of the Krishna River and flows through the state of Karnataka in India Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India [5]
The rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Pattadakal ( Kannada - ಪಟ್ಟದಕಲ್ is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka famous for its group of monuments that are the culmination United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Badami (ಬದಾಮಿ formerly known as Vatapi, is a Taluk in the Bagalkot District Aihole ( Kannada ಐಹೊಳೆ is a town in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them. [6][7] This is the beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style.
Rashtrakutas
The Rashtrakutas who ruled the deccan from Manyakheta, Gulbarga district, Karnataka in the period AD 753 - 973 built some of the finest dravidian monuments at Ellora (the Kailasanatha temple), in the rock cut architecture idiom. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Manyakheta (modern Malkhed on the banks of Kagini River in Gulbarga district, Karnataka Gulbarga District ( Kannada ಕಲಬುರ್ಗಿ(ಗುಲ್ಬರ್ಗ ( Urdu گلبرگہ) is situated between 76° Event By Place Asia Samarkand is conquered by Arabs The town of Staraja Ladoga is founded in Russia. Events By Place Africa The Fatimids move their capital to Cairo. Ellora ( Marathi: Verul is an archaeological site 30 km (186 miles from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra Kailash Temple, also Kailasanatha Temple is one of the 34 monasteries and temples extending over more than 2 km that were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff Some other fine monuments are the Jaina Narayana temple at Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples at Kuknur in Karnataka. Pattadakal ( Kannada - ಪಟ್ಟದಕಲ್ is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka famous for its group of monuments that are the culmination
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the culture of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra. Maharashtra ( Marathi: mahārāṣṭra, IPA) is a state located on the western coast of India. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. Ellora ( Marathi: Verul is an archaeological site 30 km (186 miles from the city of Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindy mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings. For the South Indian film see Ravana (film. Ravanaa, also transliterated as Raavana, Ravan or Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva Parvati ( Sanskrit: Pārvatī sa [[wiktपार्वती पार्वती]] sometimes spelled Parvathi or Parvathy, is a Hindu
The project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was dravidian. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. Pattadakal ( Kannada - ಪಟ್ಟದಕಲ್ is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka famous for its group of monuments that are the culmination Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India [8]
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukyas also called the Kalyani Chalukyas or Later Chalukyas ruled the deccan from AD 973 - 1180 from their capital Kalyani in modern Karnataka and further refined the Chalukyan style, called the Western Chalukya architecture. Western Chalukya architecture (ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ also known as Kalyani Chalukya or Later Chalukya architecture Dambal is a village in the Gadag district of the state of Karnataka, India. Gadag District ( Kannada ಗದಗ had a population of 971835 of which 35 Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South Events By Place Africa The Fatimids move their capital to Cairo. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Basavakalyan is a Town in Bidar District of the state of Karnataka, India Western Chalukya architecture (ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ also known as Kalyani Chalukya or Later Chalukya architecture Over 50 temples exist in the Krishna River-Tungabhadra doab in central Karnataka. This article is about an Indian river For other meanings of this river names see Krishna (disambiguation and Krishnaveni. The Tungabhadra River is a sacred river in Southern India that flows through the states of Karnataka and part of Andhra Pradesh to merge with the larger A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and The Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple at Bagali and Mahadeva at Itagi are the finest examples produced by the Later Chalukya architects.
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of architecture in the deccan. Their architectural developments acted as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya Architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The Badami Chalukya Architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the time period of 5th - 8th centuries CE Hoysala architecture (ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire, in the region known today [9][10] The art of Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra - Krishna River doab region of present day Gadag district in Karnataka. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Introduction Gadag-Betageri ( Kannada ಗದಗis a town and a City municipal council The Tungabhadra River is a sacred river in Southern India that flows through the states of Karnataka and part of Andhra Pradesh to merge with the larger This article is about an Indian river For other meanings of this river names see Krishna (disambiguation and Krishnaveni. A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and Gadag District ( Kannada ಗದಗ had a population of 971835 of which 35 [11] Their temple building reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the deccan, more than half of them in present day Karnataka. Apart from temples they are also well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, many of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.
Hoysalas
The Hoysala kings ruled southern India during the period AD (1100-1343) from their capital Belur and later Halebidu in Karnataka and developed a unique idiom of architecture called the Hoysala architecture in Karnataka state. Somanathapura ಸೋಮನಾಥಪುರ (also known as Somnathpur) is a town located 30 km from Mysore city in Mysore district, Karnataka Hoysala architecture (ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire, in the region known today The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Belur ( Kannada:ಬೇಲೂರು is a Panchayat town in Hassan district in the WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Halebidu ( Kannada ಹಳೆಬೀಡು is located in Hassan District, Karnataka Hoysala architecture (ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire, in the region known today Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India The finest examples of their architecture are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur, Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple in Somanathapura. The Chennakesava Temple (ಶ್ರೀ ಚೆನ್ನಕೇಶವ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ originally called Vijayanarayana Temple (ವಿಜಯನಾರಾಯಣ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Belur ( Kannada:ಬೇಲೂರು is a Panchayat town in Hassan district in the Hoysaleswara temple is a temple dedicated to Hindu God Shiva. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Halebidu ( Kannada ಹಳೆಬೀಡು is located in Hassan District, Karnataka The Chennakesava Temple (ಶ್ರೀ ಚೆನ್ನಕೇಶವ ದೇವಸ್ಥಾನ located at Somanathapura is one of the finest examples of Hoysala architecture Somanathapura ಸೋಮನಾಥಪುರ (also known as Somnathpur) is a town located 30 km from Mysore city in Mysore district, Karnataka
The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,[12] shows distinct Dravidian influences. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida,[13] and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. [14][15]
Vijayanagar
The whole of South India was ruled by Vijayanagar Empire from AD (1343-1565), who built a number of temples and monuments in their hybrid style in their capital Vijayanagar in Karnataka. Hampi ( Kannada: ಹಂಪೆ is a village in northern Karnataka state India. The Vijayanagara Architecture (ವಿಜಯನಗರ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ of the period ( 1336 - 1565CE was a notable building idiom evolved by the South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Their style was a combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous centuries. In addition, the Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution. King Krishna Deva Raya and others built many famous temples all over South India in Vijayanagar Architecture style. Sri Krishnadevaraya ( Kannada: ಶ್ರೀ ಕೃಷ್ಣದೇವರಾಯ Telugu:శ్రీకృష్ణదేవరాయ (1509-1529 CE was the most famous South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union
Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation [16][17] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). A column in Structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Vijayanagara (ವಿಜಯನಗರ is in Bellary District, northern Karnataka. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex [18]
In the 14th century the kings continued to build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but later incorporated dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples A Gopuram or gopura (also known as a vimanam) is a monumental tower usually ornate at the entrance of a temple especially in Southern India. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka Raya I and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya I are examples of Deccan architecture. Bukka ಬುಕ್ಕ್ (1356-1377 CE(also known as Bukka Raya I was an Emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire from the Sangama Dynasty. [19] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. [20] At Hampi, though the Vitthala temple is the best example of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a modest but perfectly finished example. [21] A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. [22] A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings. [23]
External Links
References
- ^ a b Fergusson, James [1910] (1997). History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 3rd, New Delhi: Low Price Publications, p. 309.
- ^ See Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). A History of South India, pp 421
- ^ Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram (1970)
- ^ The bronze image of nataraja at the Nagesvara Temple in Kumbakonam is the largest image known. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Kumbakonam (கும்பகோணம் is a town and a Municipality in the Thanjavur district
- ^ Over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone, Michael D. Gunther, 2002. Monuments of India. Retrieved on 2006-11-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw
- ^ Arthikaje, Mangalore. History of Karnataka - Chalukyas of Badami. © 1998-00 OurKarnataka. Com,Inc. Retrieved on 2006-11-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw
- ^ The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace said art critic K. V. Sounderrajan. They have influenced the architecture in Vengi and Gujarat- Dr. The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount MahendraGiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. Suryanath U. Kamath (2001), A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC (Reprinted 2002), p68
- ^ Takeo Kamiya. Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 20 September 1996. Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved on 2006-11-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw
- ^ An important period in the development of Indian art (Kamath 2001, p115)
- ^ Arthikaje. History of Karnataka - Chalukyas of Kalyani. 1998-2000 OurKarnataka. Com, Inc. Retrieved on 2006-11-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw
- ^ Kannikeswaran. Temples of Karnataka, Kalyani Chalukyan temples. webmaster@templenet. com,1996-2006. Retrieved on 2006-12-16. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion
- ^ James Fergusson and Henry Cousens write that the Hoysala style has many features in common with that of the Western Chalukya, Arthikaje, Mangalore. History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire. 1998-2000 OurKarnataka. Com, Inc. Retrieved on 2006-11-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers
- ^ Adam Hardy. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries, 1995. Vedams Books from India, Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. Retrieved on 2006-11-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers
- ^ Percy Brown writes that the Hoysala style has negligible influences on the Indo-Aryan style and owing to its many independent features, qualifies as an independent school of architecture, Suryanath U. Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, 2001, Jupiter books, MCC, (Reprinted 2002), p134
- ^ Havell, R. Narasimhachar, M. Sheshadri and S. Settar also claim their style is an independent tradition, Arthikaje, Mangalore. History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire. 1998-2000 OurKarnataka. Com, Inc. Retrieved on 2006-11-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers
- ^ Art critic, Percy Brown calls Vijayanagar architecture a blossoming of Dravidian style, Kamath, p182
- ^ Arthikaje Literary Activity}
- ^ "So intimate are the rocks and the monuments they were used for make, it is was sometimes impossible to say where nature ended and art began" (Art critic Percy Brown, quoted in Hampi, A Travel Guide, p64)
- ^ Fritz & Mitchell, p9
- ^ Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in Kamath (2001), p183
- ^ "Drama in stone" wrote art critic Percy Brown, much of the beauty of Vijayanagara architecture came from their pillars and piers and the styles of sculpting (Hampi, A Travel Guide, p77)
- ^ About the sculptures in Vijayanagara style, see Kamath (2001), p184
- ^ Several monuments are categorised as Tuluva art (Fritz & Mitchell 2001, p9)
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