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Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel

A typical drain in the City of Bankstown
A typical drain in the City of Bankstown

Contents

Early history

The earliest archaeological record of an advanced system of drainage comes from the Indus Valley Civilization from around 3100 BC in what is now Pakistan and North India. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Events c 3100 BC — Narmer (Menes unifies Upper and Lower Egypt into one country he rules this new country from Memphis Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the civilization were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Reasons for artificial drainage

An agricultural drainage channel outside Magome, Japan after a heavy rain. Note that protuberances create turbulent water, preventing sediment from settling in the channel.
An agricultural drainage channel outside Magome, Japan after a heavy rain. was the forty-third of the sixty-nine stations of the Nakasendō, an ancient road that connected Kyoto and Edo during the Edo period. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Note that protuberances create turbulent water, preventing sediment from settling in the channel.

Wetland soils may need drainage to be used for agriculture. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In the northern USA and Europe, glaciation created numerous small lakes which gradually filled with humus to make marshes. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the Humus (Origin 1790–1800 Latin: earth ground) is the organic material in Soil lending it a dark brown or black colouration In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject Some of these were drained using open ditches and trenches to make mucklands, which are primarily used for high value crops such as vegetables. A ditch is usually defined as a small to moderate depression created to channel Water. Muck is a Soil made up primarily of Humus from drained Swampland It is known as black soil in The Fens of eastern England, where it The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however

The largest project of this type in the world has been in process for centuries in the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The area between Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden was, in prehistoric times swampland and small lakes. Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west in the past usually Harlem in English is a city in the Netherlands. "Leyden" redirects here For other uses see Leyden (disambiguation. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" Turf cutting (Peat mining), subsidence and shoreline erosion gradually caused the formation of one large lake, the Haarlemmermeer, or lake of Haarlem. Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body In Geology, Engineering, and Surveying, subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually the Earth's surface as it shifts downward relative to Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Haarlemmermeer is a municipality in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. The invention of wind powered pumping engines in the 15th century permitted drainage of some of the marginal land, but the final drainage of the lake had to await the design of large, steam powered pumps and agreements between regional authorities. Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. The elimination of the lake occurred between 1849 and 1852, creating thousands of km² of new land. Year 1849 ( MDCCCXLIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand

Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture. The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. An example is the flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida. Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils. Rice production requires complete control of water, as fields need to be flooded or drained at different stages of the crop cycle. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many The Netherlands has also led the way in this type of drainage, not only to drain lowland along the shore, but actually pushing back the sea until the original nation has been greatly enlarged.

In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains. Waterlogging is a verbal noun meaning the saturation of such as ground or the filling of such as a Boat with Water. "Snowfall" redirects here For other uses see Snow (disambiguation or Snowfall (disambiguation. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward, meanwhile plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air movement through the soil. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and
Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan or relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils. In Soil science, Agriculture and Gardening, hardpan is a general term for a dense layer of Soil, residing usually below the uppermost Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production. A fruit tree is a Tree bearing Fruit &mdash the structures formed by the ripened ovary of a Flower containing one or more Seeds. Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established. In each of these cases appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops. Botanically an annual plant is a Plant that usually germinates, Flowers and dies in one Year. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than

Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not consider drainage necessary. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Evapotranspiration (ET is a term used to describe the sum of Evaporation and Plant Transpiration from the earth's land surface to Atmosphere Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to control soil salinity. Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil Salt affected soils are caused by excess accumulation of salts typically most pronounced at the soil surface

Drainage in the 19th century

From the 1881 Household Cyclopedia

This operation is always best performed in spring or summer, when the ground is dry. Spring is one of the four Temperate Seasons Spring marks the transition from Winter into Summer. Summer is one of the four Temperate Seasons Summer marks the warmest time of year with the longest days Main drains ought to be made in every part of the field where a cross-cut or open drain was formerly wanted; they ought to be cut four feet (1. 2 m) deep, upon an average. This completely secures them from the possibility of being damaged by the treading of horses or cattle, and being so far below the small drains, clears the water finely out of them. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family In every situation, pipe-turfs for the main drains, if they can be had, are preferable. If good stiff clay, a single row of pipe-turf; if sandy, a double row. When pipe-turf cannot be got conveniently, a good wedge drain may answer well, when the subsoil is a strong, stiff clay; but if the subsoil be only moderately so, a thorn drain, with couples below, will do still better; and if the subsoil is very sandy, except pipes can be had, it is in vain to attempt under-draining the field by any other method. It may be necessary to mention here that the size of the main drains ought to be regulated according to the length and declivity of the run, and the quantity of water to be carried off by them. It is always safe, however, to have the main drains large, and plenty of them; for economy here seldom turns out well.

Having finished the main drains, proceed next to make a small drain in every furrow of the field if the ridges formerly have not been less than fifteen feet (5 m) wide. But if that should be the case, first level the ridges, and make the drains in the best direction, and at such a distance from each other as may be thought necessary. If the water rises well in the bottom of the drains, they ought to be cut three feet (1 m) deep, and in this ease would dry the field sufficiently well, although they were from twenty-five to thirty feet (8 to 10 m) asunder; but if the water does not draw well to the bottom of the drains, two feet (0. 6 m) will be a sufficient deepness for the pipe-drain, and two and a half feet (1 m) for the wedge drain. In no case ought they to be shallower where the field has been previously leveled. In this instance, however, as the surface water is carried off chiefly by the water sinking immediately into the top of the drains, it will be necessary to have the drains much nearer each other--say from fifteen to twenty feet (5 to 6 m). If the ridges are more than fifteen feet (5 m) wide, however broad and irregular they may be, follow invariably the line of the old furrows, as the best direction for the drains; and, where they are high-gathered ridges, from twenty to twenty-four inches will be a sufficient depth for the pipe-drain, and from twenty-four to thirty inches for the wedge-drain. Particular care should be taken in connecting the small and main drains together, so that the water may have a gentle declivity, with free access into the main drains.

When the drains are finished, the ridges are cleaved down upon the drains by the plough; and where they had been very high formerly, a second clearing may be given; but it is better not to level the ridges too much, for by allowing them to retain a little of their former shape, the ground being lowest immediately where the drains are, the surface water collects upon the top of the drains; and, by shrinking into them, gets freely away. After the field is thus finished, run the new ridges across the small drains, making them about ten feet (3 m) broad, and continue afterwards to plough the field in the same manner as dry land.

It is evident from the above method of draining that the expense will vary very much, according to the quantity of main drains necessary for the field, the distance of the small drains from each other, and the distance the turf is to be carried.

The advantage resulting from under-draining, is very great, for besides a considerable saving annually of water furrowing, cross cutting, etc. , the land can often be ploughed and sown to advantage, both in the spring and in the fall of the year, when otherwise it would be found quite impracticable; every species of drilled crops, such as beans, potatoes, turnips, etc. , can be cultivated successfully; and every species, both of green and white crops, is less apt to fail in wet and untoward seasons.

Wherever a burst of water appears in any particular spot, the sure and certain way of getting quit of such an evil is to dig hollow drains to such a depth below the surface as is required by the fall or level that can be gained, and by the quantity of water expected to proceed from the burst or spring. A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface Having ascertained the extent of water to be carried off, taken the necessary levels, and cleared a mouth or loading passage for the water, begin the drain at the extremity next to that leader, and go on with the work till the top of the spring is touched, which probably will accomplish the intended object. But if it should not be completely accomplished, run off from the main drain with such a number of branches as may be required to intercept the water, and in this way disappointment will hardly be experienced. Drains, to be substantially useful, should seldom be less than three feet (1 m) in depth, twenty or twenty four inches thereof to be close packed with stones or wood, according to circumstances. The former are the best materials, but in many places are not to be got in sufficient quantities; recourse therefore, must often be made to the latter, though not so effectual or durable.

It is of vast importance to fill up drains as fast as they are dug out; because, if left open for any length of time, the earth is not only apt to fall in but the sides get into a broken, irregular state, which cannot afterwards be completely rectified. A proper covering of straw or sod should be put upon the top of the materials, to keep the surface earth from mixing with them; and where wood is the material used for filling up, a double degree of attention is necessary, otherwise the proposed improvement may be effectually frustrated. Sod or turf is grass and the part of the Soil beneath it held together by the Roots or a piece of this material

The pit method of draining is a very effectual one, if executed with judgment. When it is sufficiently ascertained where the bed of water is deposited, which can easily be done by boring with an auger, sink a pit into the place of a size which will allow a man freely to work within its bounds. Dig this pit of such a depth as to reach the bed of the water meant to be carried off; and when this depth is attained, which is easily discerned by the rising of the water, fill up the pit with great land-stones and carry off the water by a stout drain to some adjoining ditch or mouth, whence it may proceed to the nearest river.

Current practices

Modern drainage systems incorporate geotextile filters that retain and prevent fine grains of soil from passing into and clogging the drain. Geotextiles are permeable Fabrics which when used in association with Soil, have the ability to separate filter reinforce protect or drain Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Geotextiles are synthetic textile fabrics specially manufactured for civil and environmental engineering applications. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built Environmental engineering is the application of Science and Engineering principles to improve the environment (air water and/or land resources Geotextiles are designed to retain fine soil particles while allowing water to pass through. In a typical drainage system they would be laid along a trench which would then be filled with coarse granular material: gravel, sea shells, stone or rock. A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete Solid, macroscopic particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact (the most common example would Gravel is rock that is of a specific Particle size range In Geology, gravel is any loose rock that is larger than two millimeters (2mm In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere The geotextile is then folded over the top of the stone and the trench is then covered by soil. Groundwater seeps through the geotextile and flows within the stone to an outfall. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations In high groundwater conditions a perforated plastic (PVC or PE) pipe is laid along the base of the drain to increase the volume of water transported in the drain. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the

Alternatively prefabricated plastic drainage systems, often incorporating geotextile, coco fiber or rag filters can be considered. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. The use of these materials has become increasingly more common due to their ease of use which eliminates the need for transporting and laying stone drainage aggregate which is invariably more expensive than a synthetic drain.

Over the past 30 years geotextile and PVC filters have become the most commonly used soil filter media. They are cheap to produce and easy to lay, with factory controlled properties that ensure long term filtration performance even in fine silty soil conditions. .

Drainage in construction

The civil engineer or site engineer is responsible for drainage in construction projects. A civil engineer is a person who practices Civil engineering, one of the many engineering professions They set out from the plans all the roads, Street gutters, drainage, culverts and sewers involved in construction operations. A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. A street gutter is a depression running parallel to a road designed to collect rainwater flowing along the street and divert it into a Storm drain. A culvert is a conduit used to enclose a flowing body of Water. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure During the construction of the work on site he/she will set out all the necessary levels for each of the previously mentioned factors.

Site engineers work alongside architects and construction managers, supervisors, planners, quantity surveyors, the general workforce, as well as subcontractors. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction A quantity surveyor (QS or cost engineer is a professional person working within the Construction industry. Typically, most jurisdictions have some body of drainage law to govern to what degree a landowner can alter the drainage from his parcel. Drainage law is a specific area of Water law related to Drainage of Surface water on Real property.

See also

External links

References

Dictionary

drainage

-noun

  1. A natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
  2. A system of drains.
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