Domestic violence (also known as domestic abuse or spousal abuse) occurs when a family member, partner or ex-partner attempts to physically or psychologically dominate another. Domestic violence often refers to violence between spouses, or spousal abuse but can also include cohabitants and non-married intimate partners. Domestic violence occurs in all cultures; people of all races, ethnicities, religions, sexes and classes can be perpetrators of domestic violence. Domestic violence is perpetrated by both men and women.

Domestic violence has many forms, including physical violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, intimidation, economic deprivation or threats of violence. Sexual abuse, also referred to as molestation, is the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person upon another Psychological abuse or emotional abuse is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful Intimidation (also called cowing) is intentional behavior "which would cause a person of ordinary sensibilities" fear of Injury or Harm. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Violence can be criminal and includes physical assault (hitting, pushing, shoving, etc. ), sexual abuse (unwanted or forced sexual activity), and stalking. Although emotional, psychological and financial abuse are not criminal behaviors, they are forms of abuse and can lead to criminal violence. There are a number of dimensions including mode - physical, psychological, sexual and/or social; frequency - on/off, occasional, chronic; and severity – in terms of both psychological or physical harm and the need for treatment – transitory or permanent injury – mild, moderate, severe up to homicide.  

Recent attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement in the 1970s, as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands gained attention. Awareness and documentation of domestic violence differs from country to country. Estimates are that only about a third of cases of domestic violence are actually reported in the United States and the United Kingdom. In other places with less attention and less support, reported cases would be still lower. According to the Centers for Disease Control, domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans, or more than 10% of the U. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated S. population. ^[1]

Popular emphasis has tended to be on women as the victims of domestic violence. However, with the rise of the men's movement, and particularly men's rights, there is now advocacy for men victimized by women.

Contents 1 Definitions 2 Forms of abuse 2.1 Physical violence 2.2 Sexual violence and incest 2.3 Emotional abuse 2.4 Economic abuse 2.5 Stalking 3 Victimization 3.1 Statistics 3.2 Violence against women 3.2.1 During pregnancy 3.3 Violence against men 3.4 Violence against children 3.5 2005 World Health Organization Multi-country Study 4 Types 5 Theories 5.1 Psychological 5.2 Social theories 5.2.1 Resource theory 5.2.2 Social stress 5.2.3 Social learning theory 5.3 Power and control 5.4 Alcohol-related and non-alcohol related violence 5.5 Sex and gender 6 Cycle of violence 7 Gender differences 7.1 Gender aspects of abuse 7.2 Concerns about Social Programs dealing with Violence 7.3 Domestic violence in same-sex relationships 8 Response to domestic violence 8.1 Medical response 8.2 Law enforcement 8.3 Domestic response of law enforcement today 8.4 Intervention 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 External links 11.1 Research

Definitions

The term "intimate partner violence" (IPV) is often used synonymously. Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse, and other violent acts between family members. Child abuse is the physical, psychological or sexual maltreatment of children Elder abuse is often defined as "a single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm ^[2] Wife abuse, wife beating, and battering are terms sometimes used, though with acknowledgment that many are not actually married to the abuser, but rather co-habiting or other arrangements. ^[3] In more recent years, 'battering' or 'battered wife' has become less acceptable terminology, since abuse can take other forms than physical abuse and males are often victims of violence as well. Other forms of abuse may be constantly occurring, while physical abuse happens occasionally. These other forms of abuse have potential to lead to mental illness, self-harm, and even attempts at suicide. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Self-injury ( SI) or self-harm ( SH) is deliberate Injury inflicted by a person upon their own body without suicidal intent ^[4][5]

The U. S. Office on Violence Against Women (OVW) defines domestic violence as a "pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner. The Office on Violence Against Women (OVW a component of the U "^[6] Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional, economic, or and/or psychological abuse. ^[6]

The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service in the United Kingdom in its "Domestic Violence Policy" uses domestic violence to refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours, defining it as:

Patterns of behaviour characterised by the misuse of power and control by one person over another who are or have been in an intimate relationship. The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service ( CAFCASS) is a Non-Departmental Public Body for England and Wales set up to safeguard and promote The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located It can occur in mixed gender relationships and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for the lives of children, individuals, families and communities. It may be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats and financial abuse. ^[7]

In Spain, the introduction of the organic law 1/2004 (Independent Analysis of domestic violence in Spain) in December 2004 redefined domestic violence as "a violence originating from the position of power of men over women". Men have been specifically excluded from the definition on the basis that government figures show that around 88-90% of victims are women. The new law, which changes a number of other laws and sentencing, provides instant protection to all women, eviction of men from their family homes prior to trial, and a suspension of the presumption of innocence. The new courts in Spain are called "Courts of violence against Women".

Forms of abuse

Domestic violence can take the form of physical violence, including direct physical violence ranging from unwanted physical contact to rape and murder. Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via touching Spousal rape is non-consensual sexual assault in which the perpetrator is the victim's spouse. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Indirect physical violence may include destruction of objects, striking or throwing objects near the victim, or harm to pets. In addition to physical violence, spousal abuse often includes mental or emotional abuse, including verbal threats of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children, ranging from explicit, detailed and impending to implicit and vague as to both content and time frame, and verbal violence, including threats, insults, put-downs, and attacks. An insult (also called putdown) is an expression statement or behavior that is considered degrading Nonverbal threats may include gestures, facial expressions, and body postures. A gesture is a form of Non-verbal communication made with a part of the body used instead of or in combination with verbal communication. A facial expression results from one or more motions or positions of the Muscles of the Face. With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Posture or posturing may refer toIn humans Neutral spine or good posture Human position Abnormal posturing Psychological abuse may also involve economic and/or social control, such as controlling victim's money and other economic resources, preventing victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging victim's social relationships and isolating victim from social contacts. Spiritual abuse is another form of abuse that may occur.

Physical violence

Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing injury, harm, disability, or death, for example, hitting, shoving, biting, restraint, kicking, or use of a weapon. Violence is the exertion of force so as to injure or abuse The word is used broadly to describe the destructive action of natural phenomena like Storms and Earthquakes

Sexual violence and incest

Sexual violence and incest are divided into three categories:

1. use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against their will, whether or not the act is completed;
2. attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e. Definition of sexual violence Sexual violence is defined as any sexual act attempt to obtain a sexual act unwanted sexual comments or advances or acts to traffic Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. g. , because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, because of intimidation or pressure, or because of seduction and submission (as in female forms of sexual aggression); and
3. abusive sexual contact.

Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse (also called psychological abuse) can include humiliating the victim, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, and denying the victim access to money or other basic resources.

Women who are being emotionally abused often feel as if they do not own themselves; rather, they may feel that their significant other has nearly total control over them. Women undergoing emotional abuse often suffer from depression, which puts them at increased risk for suicide, eating disorders, and drug and alcohol abuse. ^[8]

Economic abuse

Economic abuse is when the abuser has complete control over the victim's money and other economic resources. Usually, this involves putting the victim on a strict "allowance," withholding money at will and forcing the victim to beg for the money until the abuser gives them some money. It is common for the victim to receive less money as the abuse continues. This also includes (but is not limited to) preventing the victim from finishing education or obtaining employment, or intentionally squandering or misusing communal resources.

Stalking

In addition, stalking is often included among the types of Intimate Partner Violence. ---- Stalking is the obsessive following observing or contacting of another person or the obsessive attempt to engage in any of these activities Stalking generally refers to repeated behaviour that causes victims to feel a high level of fear (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). However, psychiatrist William Glasser states that fear and all other emotions are self-caused as evidenced by the wide range of emotions two different subjects might have in response to the same incident. William Glasser MD is a American Psychiatrist born in Cleveland Ohio in 1925 and developer of Reality Therapy and Choice Theory

Victimization

Statistics

Main article: Domestic violence statistics

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures,^[9] and affects people across society, irrespective of economic status. Domestic violence statistics attempt to provide statistical measures of Domestic violence. ^[3] In the United States, women are about six times as likely as men to experience intimate partner violence. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[10] Percent of women surveyed (national surveys) who were ever physically assaulted by an intimate partner: Barbados (30%), Canada (29%), Egypt (34%), New Zealand (35%), Switzerland (21%), United States (22%). Barbados ( Portuguese word for bearded-ones, bɑrˈbeɪdoʊz -dɒs situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent Island nation Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[11] Some surveys in specific places report figures as high as 50-70% of women surveyed who were ever physically assaulted by an intimate partner. ^[11] Others, including surveys in the Philippines and Paraguay, report figures as low as 10%. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only ^[11] The rate of intimate partner violence in the U. S. has declined since 1993. ^[12] Almost always, surveys will undercount actual numbers. Results will also vary, depending on specific wording of survey questions, how the survey is conducted, the definition of abuse or domestic violence used, the willingness or unwillingness of victims to admit that they have been abused and other factors.

Another controversy is the ratio of man and woman experiencing intimate partner violence. For example majority of 418 surveys collected by Martin S. Fiebert shows no differences between violence against man and woman. ^[13]

Violence against women

Main article: Violence against women

In the United States, 20 percent of all violent crime experienced by women are cases of intimate partner violence, compared to 3 percent of violent crime experienced by men. Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[14]

During pregnancy

Domestic violence during pregnancy can be missed by medical professionals because it often presents in non-specific ways. A number of countries have been statistically analyzed to calculate the prevalence of this phenomenon:

• UK prevalence: 2. 5-3. 4%^[15][16]
• USA prevalence: 3. 2-33. 7%^[17][18]
• Ireland prevalence: 12. 5%^[19]
• Rates are higher in teenagers^[20]
• Severity and frequency increase postpartum (10% antenatally vs. 19% postnatally;^[21] 21% at 3 months post partum^[22]

There are a number of presentations that can be related to domestic violence during pregnancy: delay in seeking care for injuries; late booking, non-attenders at appointments, self-discharge; frequent attendance, vague problems; aggressive or over-solicitous partner; burns, pain, tenderness, injuries; vaginal tears, bleeding, STDs; and miscarriage. A burn is a type of Injury that may be caused by Heat, cold, Electricity, Chemicals, Light, Radiation, or A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Miscarriage or spontaneous abortion is the natural or spontaneous end of a Pregnancy at a stage where the embryo or fetus is incapable of surviving generally defined

Domestic violence can also affect the fetus, the subsequent baby, and existing children:

• Pre-birth: prematurity, Premature rupture of membranes, IUD
• Psychosocial: interference in relationship, witnessing of violence, eating and sleeping disorders, emotional neediness, withdrawn, over-compliant, clingy, aggressive, problems at school, suicidal ideation
• Legal: child protection issues, overlap with child abuse
• Long-term chronic ill-health

Violence against men

Little is currently known about the actual number of men who are in a domestic relationship in which they are abused or treated violently by their female or male partners. Premature rupture of membranes ( PROM) is a condition which occurs in Pregnancy when the Amniotic sac ruptures more than an hour before the onset of An intrauterine device ( intra meaning within, and uterine meaning of the Uterus) is a Birth control device placed An eating disorder is a compulsion to eat or avoid eating that negatively affects both one's physical and mental health A sleep disorder (somnipathy is a medical disorder of the Sleep patterns of a person or animal Suicidal ideation is a common medical term for thoughts about Suicide, which may be as detailed as a formulated plan without the suicidal act itself Child protection is used to describe a set of usually government-run services designed to protect Children and encourage Family stability Child abuse is the physical, psychological or sexual maltreatment of children Few incidents are reported to police, and data is limited. ^[23] Richard J. Gelles contends that while "mens' rights groups and some scholars" believe that "battered men are indeed a social problem worthy of attention" and that "there are as many male victims of violence as female", he states that such beliefs are "a significant distortion of well-grounded research data". ^[24] Others show that while feminists' groups and some scholars believe that battered women are indeed a social problem worthy of attention there is massive data that battered men are the real problem. ^[25] Each year there are over 3. 2 million cases of men being assaulted by their intimate partner. ^[26] Advocates have theorized that the increase could be due, in part, to the profession of the male victim. For example, many men work for the federal government, police agencies, military, or other jobs that may require some kind of security clearance. For use by the United Nations, see Security Clearance (UN A security clearance is a status granted to individuals allowing them access to Classified Due to the sensitive nature of the jobs, perhaps they are afraid that protecting themselves physical or legally could cause the loss of their jobs. Male victims are often ashamed that others will perceive them as weak or less of a man. ^[27] There is also a belief that the police will not take the allegation seriously or that they (the man) will be arrested because "only men" are the abusers.

Research shows that men may be more afraid to testify against a woman than a man. Tjaden and Thoennes found that "men living with male intimate partners report more intimate partner violence than do men who live with female intimate partners. Approximately 23 percent of the men who had lived with a man as a couple reported being raped, physically assaulted, and/or stalked by a male cohabitant, while 7. A civil union is a legally recognized union similar to Marriage. 4 percent of the men who had married or lived with a woman as a couple reported such violence by a wife or female cohabitant. "^[28] In male/male relationships there may be some shame because of the nature of the relationship (i. e. , homosexual). ^[26][29]

Violence against children

Main articles: Child abuse, Child welfare, and Child sexual abuse

When it comes to domestic violence towards children involving physical abuse, research in the UK by the NSPCC indicated that "most violence occurred at home (78 per cent) 40- 60% of men and women who abuse other men or women also abuse their children. Child abuse is the physical, psychological or sexual maltreatment of children Child protection is used to describe a set of usually government-run services designed to protect Children and encourage Family stability Child sexual abuse is a form of Child abuse in which a child is abused for the sexual gratification of an adult or older adolescent The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC) is a UK charity campaigning and working in child protection ^[30] Girls whose fathers batter their mothers are 6. 5 times more likely to be sexually abused by their fathers than are girls from non-violent homes. ^[31]

2005 World Health Organization Multi-country Study

The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993, and the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women in the same year, concluded that civil society and governments have acknowledged that violence against women is a public health and human rights concern. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Work in this area has resulted in the establishment of international standards, but the task of documenting the magnitude of violence against women and producing reliable, comparative data to guide policy and monitor implementation has been exceedingly difficult. The World Health Organisation Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women 2005is a response to this difficulty. Published in 2005 it is a groundbreaking study which analysed data from 10 countries and sheds new light on the prevalence of violence against women. It seeks to look at violence against women a public health policy perspective. The findings will be used to inform a more effective response from government, including the health, justice and social service sectors, as a step towards fulfilling the state’s obligation to eliminate violence against women under international human rights laws. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government.

Types

The form and characteristics of domestic violence and abuse may vary in other ways. Michael P. Johnson (1995, 2006b) argues for three major types of intimate partner violence. The typology is supported by subsequent research and evaluation by Johnson and his colleagues,^[32] as well as independent researchers. ^[33]

Distinctions need to be made regarding types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context. Violence by a man against his wife or intimate partner is often done as a way for men to control "their woman". Other types of intimate partner violence also occur, including violence between gay and lesbian couples,^[34] and by women against their male partners. ^[35]

Distinctions are not based on single incidents, but rather on patterns across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator. Types of violence identified by Johnson:^[36][37][35]

• Common couple violence (CCV) is not connected to general control behavior, but arises in a single argument where one or both partners physically lash out at the other. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other. Intimate terrorism is more common than common couple violence, more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual, and more likely to involve serious injury. ^{[38][37][39][35]}
• Intimate terrorism (IT) may also involve emotional and psychological abuse. ^[40][41][42]
• Violent resistance (VR), sometimes thought of as "self-defense", is violence perpetrated usually by women against their abusive partners. ^{[43][44][37][45][46]}
• Mutual violent control (MVC) is rare type of intimate partner violence occurs when both partners act in a violent manner, battling for control. ^[47][35]

Another type is situational couple violence, which arises out of conflicts that escalate to arguments and then to violence. It is not connected to a general pattern of control. Although it occurs less frequently in relationships and is less serious than intimate terrorism, in some cases it can be frequent and/or quite serious, even life-threatening. This is probably the most common type of intimate partner violence and dominates general surveys, student samples, and even marriage counseling samples.

Types of male batterers identified by Holtzworth-Munroe and Stuart (1994) include "family-only", which primarily fall into the CCV type, who are generally less violent and less likely to perpetrate psychological and sexual abuse. IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes men with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are men who are emotionally dependent on the relationship. ^[48][46][35] Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations. ^[49][50]

Theories

There are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence. These include psychological theories that consider personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender, as well as social theories which consider external factors in the offender's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning. As with many phenomena regarding human experience, no single approach appears to cover all cases.

Psychological

Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Studies have found high incidence of psychopathy among abusers. ^[51][52][53] Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities (between psychotics and neurotics), which are developed early in life. Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. ^[54][55] Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factors. ^[56][57][58]

Social theories

Looks at external factors in the offender's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning, and includes rational choice theories. In Criminology, the Rational Choice Theory adopts a Utilitarian belief that man is a reasoning actor who weighs means and ends costs and benefits and makes a rational

Resource theory

Resource theory was suggested by William Goode (1971). ^[59] Women who are most dependent on the spouse for economic well being. Having children to take care of, should they leave the marriage, increases the financial burden and makes it all the more difficult for them to leave. Dependency means that they have fewer options and few resources to help them cope with or change their spouse's behavior. ^[60]

Couples that share power equally experience lower incidence of conflict, and when conflict does arise, are less likely to resort to violence. If one spouse desires control and power in the relationship, the spouse may resort to abuse. ^[61] This may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, economic abuse, isolation, making light of the situation and blaming the spouse, using children (threatening to take them away), and behaving as "master of the castle". ^[62][63]

Social stress

Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in a family may further increase tensions. ^[64] Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some (but not all) people respond to stress. ^[65][66] Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects. ^[67] Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of "successful manhood", thus he fears losing honor and respect. Theory suggests that when he is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control, he may turn to misogyny, substance abuse, and crime as ways to express masculinity. Misogyny (mɪˈsɒdʒɪni is hatred (or contemptof women Misogyny is parallel to Misandry — the hatred of men Substance abuse is the overindulgence in and dependence of a Drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health In the sociological field, crime is the breach of a rule or Law for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a Punishment ^[67]

Social learning theory

Social learning theory suggests that people learn from observing and modeling after others' behavior. For the article on social learning theory in psychology and education see Social cognitive theory. With positive reinforcement, the behavior continues. If one observes violent behavior, one is more likely to imitate it. If there are no negative consequences (e. g. victim accepts the violence, with submission), then the behavior will likely continue. Often, violence is transmitted from generation to generation in a cyclical manner. ^{[68][69][70][71][72]}

Power and control

In some relationships, violence arises out of a perceived need for power and control, a form of bullying and social learning of abuse. Abusers' efforts to dominate their partners have been attributed to low self-esteem or feelings of inadequacy, unresolved childhood conflicts, the stress of poverty, hostility and resentment toward women (misogyny), hostility and resentment toward men (misandry), personality disorders, genetic tendencies and sociocultural influences, among other possible causative factors. Misogyny (mɪˈsɒdʒɪni is hatred (or contemptof women Misogyny is parallel to Misandry — the hatred of men Misandry ( IPA) is hatred (or contempt of Men or Boys. Misandry is parallel to Misogyny —the hatred of women Most authorities seem to agree that abusive personalities result from a combination of several factors, to varying degrees.

A causalist view of domestic violence is that it is a strategy to gain or maintain power and control over the victim. Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence This view is in alignment with Bancroft's "cost-benefit" theory that abuse rewards the perpetrator in ways other than, or in addition to, simply exercising power over his or her target(s). He cites evidence in support of his argument that, in most cases, abusers are quite capable of exercising control over themselves, but choose not to do so for various reasons.

An alternative view is that abuse arises from powerlessness and externalizing/projecting this and attempting to exercise control of the victim. This article is about social philosophy For externalization (of cost in the context of economics see Externality. In Psychology, psychological projection (or projection bias) is a Defense mechanism in which one attributes one’s own unacceptable or unwanted thoughts It is an attempt to 'gain or maintain power and control over the victim' but even in achieving this it cannot resolve the powerlessness driving it. Such behaviours have addictive aspects leading to a cycle of abuse or violence. The cycle of abuse or cycle of violence is a cycle typical of an Abusive relationship, in which Battered person syndrome may appear The term cycle of violence refers to repeated acts of Violence between groups as a Cyclical pattern, associated with low emotions and doctrines retribution Mutual cycles develop when each party attempts to resolve their own powerlessness in attempting to assert control.

Questions of power and control are integral to the widely accepted Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project. The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was developed by Minnesota Program Development Inc They developed "Power and Control Wheel" to illustrate this: it has power and control at the center, surrounded by spokes (techniques used), the titles of which include:

• Coercion and threats
• Intimidation
• Emotional abuse
• Isolation
• Minimizing, denying and blaming
• Using children
• Economic abuse
• Male privilege

The model attempts to address abuse by one-sidedly challenging the misuse of power by the 'perpetrator'.

Critics of this model suggest that the one-sided focus is problematic as resolution can only be achieved when all participants acknowledge their responsibilities, and identify and respect mutual purpose. ^[73]

The power wheel model is not intended to assign personal responsibility, enhance respect for mutual purpose or assist victims and perpetrators in resolving their differences. It is an informational tool designed to help individuals understand the dynamics of power operating in abusive situations and identify various methods of abuse.

Alcohol-related and non-alcohol related violence

Other factors associated with domestic violence include heavy alcohol consumption,^[67] mental illness, classism, various political and legal characteristics such as authoritarianism and dehumanisation. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Classism is prejudice and/or discrimination on the basis of socioeconomic class Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union Dehumanization is a process by which members of a group of people assert the "inferiority" of another group through subtle or overt acts or statements

Research has shown that alcohol-related violence is related to higher levels of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testosterone (and therefore could theoretically benefit from treatment with anti-androgenic agents). On the other hand, non-alcohol related domestic violence is related to significantly reduced levels of spinal 5-HIAA - a serotonin metabolite,^[74] suggesting that non-alcohol related domestic violence may benefit from treatment with medications like selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs)^[75]

Sex and gender

Modes of abuse are stereotyped by some to be gendered, females tending to use more psychological and men more physical forms. The visibility of these differs markedly. However, experts who work with victims of domestic violence have noted that physical abuse is almost invariably preceded by psychological abuse. Police and hospital admission records indicate that a higher percentage of females than males seek treatment and report such crimes.

Unless or until more men identify themselves and go on record as having been abused by female partners, and in a manner whereby the nature and extent of their injuries can be clinically assessed, men will continue to be identified as the most frequent perpetrators of physical and emotional violence.

See also the section "Gender Differences" in this article, and some of the statistics in the subsection "U. S. " in the "Statistics" section.

Cycle of violence

Main articles: Cycle of violence and cycle of abuse

Frequently, domestic violence is used to describe specific violent and overtly abusive incidents, and legal definitions will tend to take this perspective. The term cycle of violence refers to repeated acts of Violence between groups as a Cyclical pattern, associated with low emotions and doctrines retribution The cycle of abuse or cycle of violence is a cycle typical of an Abusive relationship, in which Battered person syndrome may appear However, when violent and abusive behaviours happen within a relationship, the effects of those behaviours continue after these overt incidents are over. Advocates and counsellors will refer to domestic violence as a pattern of behaviours, including those listed above.

Lenore Walker presented the model of a Cycle of Violence which consists of three basic phases:

Honeymoon Phase

Characterized by affection, apology, and apparent end of violence. The term cycle of violence refers to repeated acts of Violence between groups as a Cyclical pattern, associated with low emotions and doctrines retribution During this stage the batterer feels overwhelming feelings of remorse and sadness. Some batterers walk away from the situation, while others shower their victims with love and affection.

Tension Building Phase

Characterized by poor communication, tension, fear of causing outbursts. During this stage the victims try to calm the batterer down, to avoid any major violent confrontations.

Acting-out Phase

Characterized by outbursts of violent, abusive incidents. During this stage the batterer attempts to dominate his/her partner(victim), with the use of domestic violence.

Although it is easy to see the outbursts of the Acting-out Phase as abuse, even the more pleasant behaviours of the Honeymoon Phase serve to perpetuate the abuse. See also the cycle of abuse article. The cycle of abuse or cycle of violence is a cycle typical of an Abusive relationship, in which Battered person syndrome may appear

Many domestic violence advocates believe that the cycle of violence theory is limited and does not reflect the realities of many men and women experiencing domestic violence.

Gender differences

The role of gender is a controversial topic related to the discussion of domestic violence.

Erin Pizzey, the founder of an early women's shelter in Chiswick, London, has expressed her dismay at how she believes the issue has become a gender-political football, and expressed an unpopular view in her book Prone to Violence that some women in the refuge system had a predisposition to seek abusive relationships. Erin Patria Margaret Pizzey ( Née Carney born 19 February, 1939 in China, daughter of a Diplomat) is a British family care activist Chiswick ( IPA /ˈtʃɪzɪk/ is an area of West London, located west of Charing Cross, which covers the eastern part of the London Borough of Hounslow A political football is a political topic or issue that is continually debated but left unresolved She also expressed the view that domestic violence can occur against any vulnerable intimates, regardless of their gender.

A Freudian concept, repetition compulsion, has also come up in modern psychology as a possible cause of a woman who was abused in childhood seeking an abusive man (or vice versa), theoretically as a misguided way to "master" their traumatic experience. Repetition compulsion is psychological phenomenon in which a person repeats a Traumatic event or its circumstances over and over again ^[76]

Gender aspects of abuse

There continues to be discussion about whether men are more abusive than women, whether men's abuse of women is worse than women's abuse of men, and whether abused men should be provided the same resources and shelters that years of advocacy, money-rasing, and funding has gained for women victims^[77] sekä Carney (2007)^[78].

Martin S. Fiebert of the Department of Psychology at California State University, Long Beach, provides an analysis of 209 scholarly investigations: 161 empirical studies and 48 analyses, which he believes demonstrate women are as physically aggressive, or more aggressive, than men. California State University Long Beach (also known as Cal State Long Beach, Long Beach State, CSU Long Beach, CSULB, LBSU {fact | December 21, 2007} According to the Los Angeles Times article about male victims of domestic violence, Fiebert suggests that ". . . consensus in the field is that women are as likely as men to strike their partner but that - as expected - women are more likely to be injured than men. However, he noted, men are seriously injured in 38% of the cases in which "extreme aggression" is used. " No statistic was given to shed light on how often "extreme aggression" occurs with women as the aggressor. The article goes on to say, "We've all learned to be wary of statistics, and Fiebert says studies abound on the subject. He notes, however, that those suggesting men are also frequent abuse victims should not be used to minimize the threat that women face from abusive boyfriends or spouses. "^[79]

In a Meta-analysis, John Archer, Ph. D. , from the Department of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, UK, writes:

The present analyses indicate that men are among those who are likely to be on the receiving end of acts of physical aggression. The extent to which this involves mutual combat or the male equivalent to “battered women” is at present unresolved. Both situations are causes for concern. Straus (1997) has warned of the dangers involved — especially for women — when physical aggression becomes a routine response to relationship conflict. “Battered men” — those subjected to systematic and prolonged violence — are likely to suffer physical and psychological consequences, together with specific problems associated with a lack of recognition of their plight (George and George, 1998). Seeking to address these problems need not detract from continuing to address the problem of “battered women. "^[80]

Donald G. Dutton and Tonia L. Nicholls, from the Department of Psychology at the University of British Columbia also undertook a meta-analysis of data in 2005. The University of British Columbia ( UBC) is a Canadian public research University with campuses near Vancouver and in Kelowna They concluded:

Clearly, shelter houses full of battered women demonstrate the need for their continued existence. Moreover, outside of North American and Northern Europe, gender inequality is still the norm (Archer, in press). However, within those countries that have been most progressive about women’s equality, female violence has increased as male violence has decreased (Archer, in press). There is not one solution for every domestically violent situation; some require incarceration of a terrorist perpetrator, others can be dealt with through court-mandated treatment, still others may benefit from couples therapy. However, feminist inspired intervention standards that preclude therapists in many states from doing effective therapy with male batterers are one outcome of this paradigm. The failure to recognize female threat to husbands, female partners, or children is another (Straus et al. , 1980 found 10% higher rates of child abuse reported by mothers than by fathers).
The one size fits all policy driven by a simplistic notion that intimate violence is a recapitulation of class war does not most effectively deal with this serious problem or represent the variety of spousal violence patterns revealed by research. At some point, one has to ask whether feminists are more interested in diminishing violence within a population or promoting a political ideology. If they are interested in diminishing violence, it should be diminished for all members of a population and by the most effective and utilitarian means possible. This would mean an intervention/treatment approach based on other successful approaches from criminology and psychology. ^[81]

Theories that women are as violent as men have been dubbed "Gender Symmetry" theories. ^[82][83][84]. ^[85][86] In the most serious violence the men do dominate for example in 1999 in the US, 1,218 women and 424 men were killed by an intimate partner, regardless of which partner started the violence and of the gender of the partner. ^[87] On the other hand, Michael Kimmel of the State University of New York at Stony Brook found that men are more violent inside and outside of the home than women. Michael Scott Kimmel (*1951 is an American sociologist. His focus is Pro-feminism. State University of New York at Stony Brook, commonly known as Stony Brook University, is a public research university located in Stony Brook, New York ^[88]

A problem in conducting studies that seek to describe violence in terms of gender is the amount of silence, fear and shame that results from abuse within families and relationships. Another is that abusive patterns can tend to seem normal to those who have lived in them for a length of time. Similarly, subtle forms of abuse can be quite transparent even as they set the stage for further abuse seeming normal. Finally, inconsistent definition of what domestic violence is makes definite conclusions difficult to reach when compiling the available studies. ^[89]

Both men and women have been arrested and convicted of assaulting their partners in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. The bulk of these arrests have been men being arrested for assaulting women. Determining how many instances of domestic violence actually involve male victims is difficult. Male domestic violence victims may be reluctant to get help for a number of reasons. ^[89] Another study has demonstrated a high degree of acceptance by women of aggression against men. ^[90]

Murders of female intimate partners by men have dropped, but not nearly as dramatically. ^[91] Men kill their female intimate partners at about four times the rate that women kill their male intimate partners. Research by Jacquelyn Campbell, PhD RN FAAN has found that at least two thirds of women killed by their intimate partners were battered by those men prior to the murder. She also found that when males are killed by female intimates, the women in those relationships had been abused by their male partner about 75% of the time (see battered person syndrome and battered woman defence)

Some researchers have found a relationship between the availability of domestic violence services, improved laws and enforcement regarding domestic violence and increased access to divorce, and higher earnings for women with declines in intimate partner homicide. Battered person syndrome is a physical and psychological condition that is classified as ICD-9 code "Battered person syndrome" NEC or otherwise included The battered woman defence is a legal defence representing that the person accused of an Assault or Murder was suffering from Battered person syndrome ^[92]

Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations, as do factors like race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy. A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with Males or Females in a given social group or system None of these factors cause one to abuse or another to be abused.

Concerns about Social Programs dealing with Violence

In 1997, the Canadian Advertising Foundation ruled that a National Ad campaign that featuring Nicole Brown Simpson's sister Denise with the slogan entiled, "Stop violence against Women" was in fact portraying only men as aggressors, and that it was not providing a balanced message and was in fact contributing to gender stereotyping. Nicole Brown Simpson ( May 19, 1959 - June 12, 1994) was the ex-wife of American football player O (The murder of Nicole Simpson also included the murder of Ronald Goldman) ^[93]

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships

Domestic violence also occurs in same-sex relationships. Ronald Lyle Goldman ( July 2, 1968 June 12, 1994) was Killed in Los Angeles California, along with Nicole In an effort to be more inclusive, many organizations have made an effort to use gender-neutral terms when referring to perpetratorship and victimhood.

Historically domestic violence has been seen as a family issue and little interest has been directed at violence in same-sex relationships. It has not been until recently, as the gay rights movement has brought the issues of gay and lesbian people into public attention, when research has been started to conduct on same-sex relationships. Several studies have indicated that partner abuse among same-sex couples (both female and male) is relatively similar in both prevalence and dynamics to that among opposite-sex couples. ^[94] Gays and lesbians, however, face special obstacles in dealing with the issues that some researchers have labeled "the double closet". A recent Canadian study by Mark W. Lehman^[95] suggests similarities include frequency (approximately one in every four couples); manifestations (emotional, physical, financial, etc. ); co-existent situations (unemployment, substance abuse, low self-esteem); victims' reactions (fear, feelings of helplessness, hypervigilance); and reasons for staying (love, can work it out, things will change, denial). At the same time, significant differences, unique issues and deceptive myths are typically present. Lehman points to added discrimination and fear gays and lesbians can face; dismissal by police and some social services; a lack of support from peers who would rather keep quiet about the problem in order not to attract negative attention toward the gay community; the impacts of HIV status or AIDS in keeping partners together, due to health care insurance/access, or guilt; outing used as a weapon; and encountering supportive services that are targeted and/or structured for the needs of heterosexual women and which may not meet the needs of gay men or lesbians. Gay community or LGBT community is a term used to describe the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender subculture

Response to domestic violence

The response to domestic violence is typically a combined effort between law enforcement agencies, the courts, social service agencies and corrections/probation agencies. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has been brought more into public view.

Domestic violence historically has been viewed as a private family matter that need not involve government or criminal justice intervention. Criminal justice is the system of practices and organizations used by national and local governments directed at maintaining Social control, deterring ^[96] Police officers were often reluctant to intervene by making an arrest, and often chose instead to simply counsel the couple and/or ask one of the parties to leave the residence for a period of time. A police officer (also known as a policeman or policewoman) is a warranted employee of a Police force. An arrest is the act of depriving a person of his or her liberty usually in relation to the investigation and prevention of crime The courts were reluctant to impose any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence, largely because it was viewed as a misdemeanor offense. A misdemeanor, or misdemeanour, in many common law legal systems is a "lesser" criminal act

Activism, initiated by victim advocacy groups and feminist groups, has led to a better understanding of the scope and effect of domestic violence on victims and families, and has brought about changes in the criminal justice system's response.

Several projects have aided in filling the voids in the justice system as it pertains to the protection of victims. One such initiative, The Hope Card Project, makes an attempt to remedy several problems through the issuance of an ID card to victims of abuse. The card is used to identify both parties in a domestic violence protection order and provides additional resources to the victim through a voucher program for services. "There is no photograph on a protection order, so a photograph is a bonus, not a necessity. There are several methods used to obtain the photograph. Some jurisdictions have a photograph taken of the offender during the first hearing while both parties are present. Another method is for officers to take a photograph in the field or retrieve a booking photograph from their local jail. In a lot of cases the victim brings a photograph and it is scanned. Lastly, the new online site has some state motor vehicle department photograph databases connected for that purpose. This is the ideal method. " The Hope Card Project

Medical response

Medical professionals, who have contact with abuse victims through medical visits, have a role to play in helping domestic violence victims. Many cases of spousal abuse are handled solely by medical professionals and do not involve the police. Sometimes cases of spousal abuse are brought into the emergency room,^[97] while many other cases are handled by family physician or other primary care provider. A general practitioner, or GP is a medical practitioner who provides Primary care and specializes in Family medicine. Primary care is a term used for the activity of a Health care provider who acts as a first point of consultation for all patients ^[98]

Doctors and other medical professionals are in position to empower victims, give advice, and refer them to appropriate services. The health care professional in the United Kingdom, the United States, and elsewhere has not always met this role, been uneven in quality of care, and in many cases has been unhelpful due to misunderstandings they have about domestic violence. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[99] Myths that have prevailed in the past and influenced how a doctor approaches a case, where domestic violence may be involved, include the belief that domestic violence is rare, that women are responsible for the violence, and it is inevitable. ^[100][101] Washaw (1993) suggests that many doctors prefer not to get involved in people's "private" lives. Clifton, Jacobs, and Tulloch (1996) found that training for general practitioners in the United States about domestic violence was very limited or they had no training. Abbott and Williamson found that knowledge and understanding of domestic violence was very limited among health care professionals in a Midlands, United Kingdom county, and that they don't see themselves as being able to play a major role in helping women in regards to domestic violence. This article is mainly about the English Midlands For other uses see Midlands (disambiguation. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[99] Furthermore, in the biomedical model of health care, injuries are often just treated and diagnosed, without regard for the causes. ^[102] As well, there is substantial reluctance for victims to come forward and broach the issue with their physicians. ^[103] On average, women experience 35 incidents of domestic violence before seeking treatment. ^[104]

A number of medications have been used for control of aggression. Good evidence exists on the efficacy of clozapine. Evidence also exists for SSRIs (selective serotonin re-uptake ihibitors), like "Prozac", hormonal antiandrogenic agents, beta-blockers, quetiapine and ariipiprazole. Lithium and anticonvulsants are widely used but their efficacy is not strongly supported. ^[105]

Law enforcement

In the 1970s, it was widely believed that domestic disturbance calls were the most dangerous type for responding officers, who arrive to a highly emotionally charged situation. This belief was based on FBI statistics which turned out to be flawed, in that they grouped all types of disturbances together with domestic disturbances, such as brawls at a bar. Subsequent statistics and analysis have shown this belief to be false. ^[106][107]

Statistics on incidents of domestic violence, published in the late 1970s, helped raise public awareness of the problem and increase activism. Activism, in a general sense can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change ^[96][108] A study published in 1976 by the Police Foundation found that the police had intervened at least once in the previous two years in 85 percent of spouse homicides. List of countries by homicide rate Homicide ( Latin homicidium, homo human being + caedere to cut kill refers to the act of killing another ^[109] In the late 1970s and early 1980s, feminists and battered women's advocacy groups were calling on police to take domestic violence more seriously and change intervention strategies. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate ^[110] In some instances, these groups took legal action against police departments, including in Oakland, California and New York City, to get them to make arrests in domestic violence cases. Oakland (ˈoʊklənd founded in 1852 is the eighth-largest city in the U ^[111] They claimed that police assigned low priority to domestic disturbance calls. ^[112]

The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment was a study done in 1981-1982, led by Lawrence W. The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment (MDVE was a study done in 1981-1982 led by Lawrence W Sherman, to evaluate the effectiveness of various police responses to domestic violence calls in Minneapolis, Minnesota, including sending the abuser away for eight hours, giving advice and mediation for disputes, and making an arrest. Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force Arrest was found to be the most effective police response. The study found that arrest reduced the rate by half of re-offending against the same victim within the following six months. Recidivism ( IPA: /ɹɪˈsɪdɪvɪzm̩/ From recidive + ism, from Latin recidīvus "recurring" from re- ^[113] The results of the study received a great deal of attention from the news media, including The New York Times and prime-time news coverage on television. ^[114] Many U. S. police departments responded to the study, adopting a mandatory arrest policy for spousal violence cases with probable cause. In United States Criminal law, probable cause refers to the standard by which a Police officer has the right to make an Arrest, conduct ^[115] By 2005, 23 states and the District of Columbia had enacted mandatory arrest for domestic assault, without warrant, given that the officer has probable cause and regardless of whether or not the officer witnessed the crime. ^[116] The Minneapolis study also influenced policy in other countries, including New Zealand, which adopted a pro-arrest policy for domestic violence cases. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island ^[117]

However, the study was subject of much criticism, with concerns about its methodology, as well as its conclusions. ^[114] The Minneapolis study was replicated in several other cities, beginning in 1986, with some of these studies have producing different results. ^[118] In the replication studies, arrest seemed to help in the short run in some cases, but those arrested experienced double the rate of violence over the course of one year. ^[118] Criminologists do not fully understand the reasons why deterrent effects do not last over time. A criminologist is often defined as someone who studies the Etiology of Crime, criminal behavior types of crime and social cultural and media reactions to crime But they suggest that abusers may initially fear punishment, though many cases do not make it all the way through the criminal justice process. If the victim is uncooperative during investigation, the prosecutor may choose not to pursue the case. The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the Common law Adversarial system, or the civil law ^[119] If the case is pursued through the criminal justice system, sometimes the resulting sentence is minor. Subsequently, any fear that the abuser has of punishment may have diminished. ^[120]

Domestic response of law enforcement today

Each agency and jurisdiction within the United States has its own Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) when it comes to responding and handling domestic calls. Generally, it has been accepted that if the understood victim has visible (and recent) marks of abuse, the suspect is arrested and charged with the appropriate crime. However, that is a guideline and not a rule. Like any other call, domestic abuse lies in a gray area. Law enforcement officers have several things to consider when making a warrantless arrest:

• Are there signs of physical abuse?
• Were there witnesses?
• Is it recent?
• Was the victim assaulted by the alleged suspect?
• Who is the primary aggressor?
• Could the victim be lying?
• Could the suspect be lying?

Along with protecting the victim, law enforcement officers have to ensure that the alleged abusers' rights are not violated. Many times in cases of mutual combatants, it is departmental policy that both parties be arrested and the court system can establish truth at a later date. In some areas of the nation, this mutual combatant philosophy is being replaced by the primary abuser philosophy in which case if both parties have physical injuries, the law enforcement officer determines who the primary aggressor is and only arrest that one. This philosophy started gaining momentum when different government/private agencies started researching the effects. It was found that when both parties are arrested, it had an adverse affect on the victim. The victims were less likely to call or trust law enforcement during the next incident of domestic abuse. ^[121]

Intervention

See also: Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project

In 1981, the Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project became the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was developed by Minnesota Program Development Inc Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 This experiment, conducted in Duluth, MN, frequently referred to as the "Duluth Project. Duluth is a Port City in the US state of Minnesota and the County seat of St Minnesota ( Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers "

It coordinated agencies dealing with domestic situations, drawing together diverse elements of the system, from police officers on the street, to shelters for battered women and probation officers supervising offenders. Probation officers and parole officers function as agents or officers of the courts

This program has become a model for other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence. Corrections/probation agencies in many areas are supervising domestic violence offenders more closely, and are also paying closer attention to the victim's needs and safety issues.

There has been controversy as the Duluth framework depends on a strict "patriarchal violence" model and presumes that all violence in the home and elsewhere has a male perpetrator and female victim. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over Also evidence of success of the model is limited, with scholarly analysis and critique [1].

See also

• Abuse
• Annulment
• Child abuse
• Christianity and domestic violence
• Dating violence
• Divorce
• Emotional abuse
• Islam and domestic violence
• Misandry
• Misogyny
• Parental alienation
• Psychological abuse
• Relational aggression
• Verbal abuse
• Violence against men
• Violence against women

Footnotes

External links

• Family violence at the Open Directory Project
• Domestic violence against women at the Open Directory Project
• Helpguide: Domestic Violence and Abuse

Research

• World Health Organisation Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women 2005
• DVStats - Search engine of peer reviewed and published research on domestic violence against males

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