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Doctor (gen.: doctoris) means teacher in Latin and is a contraction of the Greek διδάκτωρ, didaktōr, teacher, from the verb διδάσκειν, didaskein, to teach. In Grammar, the genitive case or possessive case (also called the second case) is the case that marks a Noun as modifying another Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly It has been used continuously as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects This use spread to the Americas, former European colonies, and is now prevalent in most of the world. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. As a prefix — abbreviated "Dr"— its primary designation is a person who has obtained a doctorate (that is, a doctoral degree), which is the highest rank of academic degree awardable. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing Doctoral degrees may be "research doctorates", awarded on the basis of competency in research, or "taught doctorates" (also called "professional doctorates", because they are invariably awarded in professional subjects), awarded on the basis of coursework and adjunct requirements (if any) successfully completed by the conferee.

In some languages, when addressing several persons of whom each holds a doctor title, one can use the plural abbreviation Dres. (for Latin 'doctores'). E. g. , instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Rubinstein: Dres. Miller and Rubinstein. In English the alternative "Drs. " can be used. In the present-day United Kingdom, it would be very unusual - and considered slightly facetious - to address people in this way unless they were business partners; practice elswhere in the world may be different. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located

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Doctor as a noun

Throughout most of the academic world, the term "doctor" refers to an individual who earned a degree such as the Doctor of Medicine, or M.D. (an abbreviation of the Latin Medicinæ Doctor) or Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. (an abbreviation for the Latin Philosophiæ Doctor; or alternatively Doctor philosophiæ, D. Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. Phil. , originally from the Greek Διδάκτωρ Φιλοσοφίας, Didaktōr Philosophias, meaning Teacher of Philosophy).

The first academic degrees were all law degrees, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic madrasahs. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement An ijazah is a certificate used primarily by Muslims to indicate that one has been authorized by a higher authority to transmit a certain subject or text of Islamic knowledge "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. [1] The foundations of the first universities in Europe were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and Germany are identified as glossators in a specific sense [2] The first European university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world The scholars of the 11th and 12th century legal schools in Italy, France and Germany are identified as glossators in a specific sense It is from this history that it is said that the first academic title of doctor applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century. [3] And at the University of Bologna from its founding in the 12th century until the end of the 20th century the only degree conferred was the doctorate, usually earned after five years of intensive study after secondary school. The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world The rising of the doctor of philosophy to its present level is a modern novelty. [4] At its origins, a doctorate was simply a qualification for a guild—that of teaching law. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers [5]

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology, philosophy, law, and medicine) reflected the historical separation of all university study into these three fields. Over time the D. D. has gradually become less common and studies outside theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities - however this usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).

The Ph. D. was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge.

The Ph. D. entered widespread use in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. For other universities in Berlin see List of Universities in Berlin. From there it spread to the United States, arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the United Kingdom in 1921. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D. Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph. The University of St Andrews is the oldest University in Scotland and third oldest in the English-speaking world, having been founded between D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such as Oxford and Sussex (and, until recently, York) retain the D. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Sussex is a British Campus university which is situated next to the East Sussex village of Falmer, and is from Brighton The University of York is a Campus university in the city of York, England. Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as does the University of Waikato in New Zealand. The University of Waikato ( Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato) is located in Hamilton and Tauranga, New Zealand, and was established in 1964 New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island

In the US, the Sc. D. , which was first conferred in North America by Harvard in 1872, is rarer than the Ph. D. However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Washington University in St. DSc ScD SD, or DrSc are common abbreviations for the Latin Scientiæ Doctor, meaning Doctor of Science. Louis, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph. D. and Sc. D. are identical.

Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a dissertation or thesis, often of substantial length. Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature The degree and title "doctor" is often a prerequisite for permanent (or nearly permanent) employment as a university lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis. Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Lecturer is a term of Academic rank. In the United Kingdom lecturer is the name given to University Teachers in their first permanent In others such as engineering or geology, a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit In a small but growing number of fields, the doctorate is felt to injure employment prospects by causing 'overqualification' for the job. Being overqualified means one is skilled or educated beyond what is necessary for a job.

Medical profession

In English-speaking countries, the title doctor is strongly associated with the medical profession. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Most medical practitioners use the title professionally and socially.

In German-speaking countries the word Doktor refers exclusively to someone with a research doctorate, and is distinct from Arzt, which refers exclusively to a medical practitioner. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. An Arzt who holds the Dr. med. degree is addressed as Herr Doktor; an Artz who does not would simply be Herr.

Legal profession

Academically, law is a doctoral subject in certain countries, the United States and most European countries among them. Centuries ago, lawyers were called "civil doctors" as distinct from the medical doctor and other types.

In the United States, while some lawyers do use the title "Dr. ", practising lawyers are typically called "Mr. " or "Ms. /Mrs. /Miss", regardless of whether they possess a Juris Doctor degree or not. This is a convention of the courts, of litigation and of the legal profession generally. The title Counselor is often used in courtrooms in the United States. A judge or justice in the United States is addressed as Judge followed by his or her surname outside the court room. In the court room, he or she is addressed as "your honor". Practicing lawyers usually are not addressed as "Doctor". An exception is when a lawyer with a doctoral degree is a witness in a proceeding, in which case that person may be addressed "Doctor" in the witness box.

In other countries such as Portugal, and in most South American countries (Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, Peru, and Uruguay), practising lawyers are called "Doctor". In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America In France, Belgium and Quebec, it is common to use the title "Maître" (literally meaning Master and abbreviated Me). This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk (In Quebec, the title Maître is used in English as well as French. )

Historically, U. S. legal education followed the British model. Law was an undergraduate subject and a degree in law was an undergraduate degree, typically the Legum Baccalaureus (LL. In some Educational systems undergraduate education is Post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's degree. B. ) or Bachelor of Laws. The Bachelor of Laws (abbreviated LLB, LLB or rarely LlB) is an undergraduate or bachelor degree in law offered in most Common law This was the basic qualifying degree. People who wanted to teach in law school, or who wished to add to their knowledge after a few years of practice, would go on from the LL. B. to take the Legum Magister (LL. M. ) or Master of Laws. The Master of Laws is an advanced Academic degree, or research degree and is commonly abbreviated LL The terminal degree in the sequence was the LL. D. or Doctor of Laws. Doctor of Laws ( Latin: Legum Doctor, LLD) is a Doctorate -level Academic degree in Law. This represents the top law degree in The United Kingdom, Ireland, and throughout the Commonwealth. In the United States however, a course of events led to the LL. D. becoming a merely honorary degree, while law was elevated to a graduate program and its degrees graduate-level degrees. In the USA, unlike the UK and in the Commonwealth generally, all LL. D. degrees are conferred honoris causa as an honorary degree to people of distinction in public life. An honorary degree or a degree honoris causa ( Latin: 'for the sake of the honour' is an Academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding There is no course of study leading to this degree.

In most cases, an undergraduate degree in the United States is considered a basic foundation in academia, not a professional degree. Engineering is an exception. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Nevertheless, as a general rule, an academic program requiring that the applicant earn an undergraduate degree prior to application for admission is considered a graduate program, and the degree conferred after completing that program is considered a graduate degree. The LL. B. degree, as a Bachelor's degree, is an undergraduate degree equal to a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science. A Bachelor of Science ( BS, BSc or BSc in the UK; less commonly S The Juris Doctor degree became the standard legal degree, to reflect both the graduate nature of the training, and a professional standing.

By World War I, students had to complete two years or 60 credits of undergraduate coursework before admission to law school, this is still the rule enshrined in law in the State of California, though ABA-accredited law schools in the state exceed this minimum standard. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The State Bar of California is California 's official Bar association. Most ABA-accredited law schools require completion of a bachelor's degree for admission to a J.D. or D.Jur. program. Juris Doctor (abbreviated JD or JD, from the Latin, Teacher of Law) is a first professional graduate degree and Professional

By 1971, the J. D. degree had completely replaced the LL. B. in the American law school. Some schools also issue graduate degrees in law in programs not meant to train lawyers. Loyola University of Chicago, for example, offers a Juris Magister or Master of Jurisprudence degree in health law, for health law professionals who require a working knowledge of law (e. g. , to communicate intelligently with attorneys) but do not need to become attorneys.

The LL. M. is a post-J. D. degree and exists as a specialty for practicing tax, environment, or other specialized areas in American law. It also exists as a special case in American legal tradition, as a conversion or adaptation of foreign legal training into qualifications to practice in the United States. Many states, for example, will accept a foreign law degree as a qualification for admission to practice if the degree is supplemented by an LL. M. degree from an American law school. A few American law schools do not offer any LL. M. programs except LL. M. programmes for foreign-trained students.

Some U. S. law schools offer explicitly post-J. A law school (also known as a school of law or college of law) is an institution specializing in Legal education. D. /LL. M. law programmes with the creation of the Scientiae Juris Doctor or S. J. D. degree (Doctor of the Science of Law) (J. S. D. is also used). Like the Ph. D. , the S. J. D requires scholarly research and the successful completion of a dissertation.

It is interesting to note than in the ABA Journal, November 2006, an article titled "Lawyers Are Doctors, Too" addresses the question of whether or not an attorney in the United States can call him/herself Doctor. An attorney at law (or attorney-at-law) in the United States is a practitioner in a court of law who is legally qualified to prosecute In essence ABA Informal Opinion 1152 (1970) allows those who hold a Juris Doctor (J. D. ) to use the title doctor (the article also clarified this right for holders of the LL. M. (Mastsers of Law), but only in the context of such an individual already retaining a J. D. degree (YourABA, September 2007, quoting Informal Opinion 1152. ) See also ABA Model Code of Professional Responsibility, Disciplinary Rule 2-102(E). Under prior ethical rules, the use of the title doctor was prohibited as being self-laudation. Some states prohibit attorneys from using the title doctor without clarification since it might mislead the public into thinking the attorney is a health professional. In all states attorneys must avoid using the title doctor in a manner that might mislead the public, such as advertising where a medical malpractice attorney uses "Doctor" in a manner which could cause the public to believe the attorney is a medical professional with relevant medical experience.

In Germany, about one in eight lawyers has a doctoral degree and most qualify via two state exams which entitle them to be recognised by a chamber (Anwaltskammer) as legal practitioners. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. A Doctor of Law was historically accorded the same privileges as a baron (including, for example, the privilege of being allowed to use the same hawk as a baron). Baron is a specific Title of nobility. The word baron comes from Old French baron, itself from Old High German and Latin (liber Falconry or hawking is an Art or Sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey to hunt or pursue game for humans

Use of "doctor" as a title of address

Those who possess a doctoral degree are generally entitled to call themselves "Doctor", although restrictions apply in some jurisdictions and some situations (e. g. , when it would mislead someone to think that they are licensed physician). Dentists, optometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians are often called "doctor" as well. Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Optometry is a health care profession concerned with Eyes and related structures as well as vision, Visual systems and vision information Podiatry or podiatric medicine is a field of Healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the Foot, Ankle, and the "anatomical A veterinarian ( American English) or a Veterinary surgeon ( British English) often shortened to vet, is a Physician

In the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other areas whose culture was recently linked to the United Kingdom, the title Doctor generally applies in both the academic and clinical fields. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located "Registered medical practitioners" usually do not have a doctorate; rather, they have the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (usually also with surgery). Registered medical practitioner is a legal designation indicating that a medical practitioner is legally registered (or licenced) to practice as a medical doctor Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh, Cultural conventions exist, clinicians who are Members or Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons are an exception. MRCS is a Professional qualification for Surgeons in the UK and Ireland It means Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. FRCS links here it is also an abbreviation for the Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting. As a homage to their predecessors, the barber surgeons, they prefer to be addressed as Mr, Mrs, Ms or Miss, even if they do hold a doctorate. The Barber surgeon was one of the most common Medical practitioners of medieval Europe - generally charged with looking after Soldiers during MISTER ( "Metropolitan Individual System of Transportation on an Elevated Rail") is a Personal rapid transit (PRT system developed in Poland. Mrs (UK or Mrs (USA is an English honorific used for women, usually for those who are married and who do not have a title that would take Ms (UK or Ms (USA (mɪz or /məz/ is an English honorific used with the last name or full name of a Woman. When a medically-qualified person passes the notoriously difficult examinations which enable them to become a member of one or more of the Royal Surgical Colleges and become "MRCS", it is customary for them to drop the "Doctor" prefix and take up "Mister". MRCS is a Professional qualification for Surgeons in the UK and Ireland It means Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. This rule applies to any doctor of any grade who has passed the appropriate exams, and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically-orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted the "Mister" prefix. Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as "Professor" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been enobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresonding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). Physicians, on the other hand, when they pass their "MRCP" examinations, which enable them to become members of the Royal College of Physicians, do not drop the "Doctor" prefix and remain doctor, even when they are consultants. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health The Royal College of Physicians of London was the first medical institution in England to receive a Royal Charter In the United Kingdom the status and rank of consultant surgeons with the MRCS, titled "mister", and consultant physicians with the MRCP, titled "doctor", is identical. Surgeons in the USA and elsewhere may have the title "doctor".

In Italy, all university graduates (after a 3 year course equivalent to a Bachelor degree) receive the title "Dottore"; after earning a second 2-years degree "Dottore Magistrale", and after earning their Ph. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest D. "Dottore di Ricerca". Therefore, Italians thus address each other and present themselves as "Dott. " or Dr. even if not holding what in other countries is considered a doctorate. This phenomenon may have been caused by Italy's previous lack of a "Ph. D. " degree.

In German speaking countries, all holders of doctorate degrees are appropriately addressed as "Dr X" in all social situations. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. However, those granted PhDs from other countries may find themselves in legal difficulties if they use the term "Doktor" professionally in Germany. [12]

In the Philippines, where titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions (gender-specific terms), the feminine form of "Doktor" is "Doktora", and is abbreviated usually as "Dra. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP "

Many academic, research scientist and practitioners in subjects allied to medicine also use Dr and/or their terminal degree after their last name. (Terminal degrees include Ph. D. , Sc. D. , Ed. D. , or Psy. D. )

EU legislation recognises academic qualifications (including higher degrees and doctorates) of all member states. In Germany, a recent federal law (signed by all Cultural and Educational Ministers in accord with the EU law) confirmed the standardisation of qualifications and recognised that non-Germans were also entitled to use the title Doctor if they possessed an equivalent and recognised qualification from an EU member state. Until this Federal Law was introduced, there was no recognised mechanism to prevent administrators in private bodies and civil servants in public-funded bodies (such as universities) from automatically discriminating between the qualifications of people with German doctorates compared to holders of doctorates from an EU member state. The German university bureaucratic practice of using the post-nominal form, "Ph. D. " (or equivalent), to distinguish non-German doctorates can be challenged legally as evidence of arbitrary discrimination and prejudice against non-German nationals (academics). All EU citizens are now "legally entitled" to use and be titled (addressed) as "Doctor" or "Dr. " in all formal, legal and published communications. For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally ("validated") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn. The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries.

In Hungary the title of Doctor used to become a part of the name and is added as such to personal ID documents. The use of this practice has been significantly declined in the recent years, although legally it is still possible.

Correct abbreviation of "Doctor"

The switch from "Doctor" to its abbreviated form involves contraction rather than truncation. In British English it is not necessary to indicate a contraction with a full stop (period) after the abbreviation, while the opposite holds true in North American English. British English or UK English ( BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the North American English is a collective term used for the varieties of the English language that are spoken in North America, namely in the United States This means that while the abbreviation of Doctor is usually written as "Dr" in most of the Commonwealth, it is usually written as "Dr. " in North America. [13]

Similarly, conventions regarding the punctuation of degree abbreviations vary. In the United Kingdom, it is increasingly common to omit punctuations from abbreviations that are not truncations: while the usual abbreviation of "Esquire" is "Esq. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ", the usual abbreviation for "Doctor of Philosophy" is "PhD". It is not incorrect to use the fully-punctuated "Ph. D. ", though if this pattern is used, it should be used consistently; practice in particular situations may vary, and it is always more correct to be consistent with a local patterns of usage than to deviate from it.

Honorary doctorates

An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community. This service does not need be academic in nature. Often, the same set of degrees is used as for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being honoris causa: in comprehensive lists, the lettering used to indicate the possession of a higher doctorate is often adjusted to indicate this, e. g. "Hon. Sc. D. " rather than "Sc. D". The degree of Doctor of the University (D. Univ. ) however is only awarded as an honorary degree.

Who's Who publishers A & C Black note that honorary doctorates are not used in circumstances where they might be taken to imply an academic qualification and advises following the holder's preference when determining whether to address an "honorary" doctor as "Dr. "[14]

Other uses of "Doctor"

References

  1. ^ Makdisi, G. (1989). “Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 109, 2, pp. 175-182.
  2. ^ Herbermann, et al. (1915). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Encyclopedia Press. Accessed May 26, 2008.
  3. ^ idem
  4. ^ Reed, A. (1921). ‘’Training for the Public Profession of the Law, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15. ’’ Boston: Merrymount Press.
  5. ^ van Ditzhuyzen, R. (2005). The ‘creatio doctoris’: Diversity or convergence of ceremonial forms? Unknown publisher. Accessed May 26, 2008.
  6. ^ British Medical Association. 2007. Becoming a Doctor: Entry in 2008. Accessed May 31, 2008. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
  7. ^ University of Cambridge. Statutes and Ordinances, chapter 7. Accessed May 31, 2008. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
  8. ^ Titles and Forms of Address: A guide to correct use, 21st edition. (2002. ) London: A & C Black. ISBN 0-7136-6265-4
  9. ^ Dobson, Roger. (2005. ) "English surgeons may at last be about to become doctors". British Medical Journal, 330:1103.
  10. ^ "You have called me doctor for ten years." Dentistry. co. uk, February 14, 2006. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
  11. ^ Hansard, January 19, 1996. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Columns: 1064-1069.
  12. ^ Craig Whitlock and Shannon Smiley. "Non-European PhDs In Germany Find Use Of ‘Doktor’ Verboten", The Washington Post, Friday, March 14, 2008, p.  A01.  
  13. ^ Chambers Reference Online
  14. ^ Titles and Forms of Address: A guide to correct use, 21st edition. (2002. ) London: A & C Black. ISBN 0-7136-6265-4

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