- This article refers to the Argentine Dirty War; for the British film of the same name, see Dirty War (film). Dirty War is a 2004 BBC, in association with HBO Films, made-for-TV movie thriller /drama about a terrorist attack on Central For events in Morocco sometimes described as Dirty War, see Years of Lead. The Years of Lead (les années de plomb is the term used especially by former opponents to the rule of King Hassan II to describe a period of his rule (mainly the 1960s
The Dirty War (Spanish: Guerra Sucia) refers to the state-sponsored violence against Argentine citizenry from roughly 1976 to 1983 carried out primarily by Jorge Rafael Videla's military government. This article is about the History of Argentina. See also History of South America, History of Latin America, History of the Americas, and Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo (born August 21, 1925 in Mercedes Buenos Aires) was the dictator and President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981 The exact chronology of the repression is still debated, as trade unionists were targeted for assassination as early as 1973; Isabel Martínez de Perón's "annihilation decrees" of 1975, during Operativo Independencia, have also been suggested as the origin of The Dirty War. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former Operativo Independencia ( Spanish for "Operation Independence" was the code-name of the Argentine military operation in the Tucumán Province,
In 1973, as Juan Perón returned from exile, the Ezeiza massacre marked the end of the alliance between left- and right-wing factions of Peronism. Juan Domingo Perón (October 8 1895 &ndash July 1 1974 was an Argentine Colonel and Politician, elected three times as President of Argentina The Ezeiza massacre took place on June 20, 1973 near the Ezeiza International Airport in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Peronism (Peronismo or Justicialism (Spanish Justicialismo) is an Argentine political movement based on the ideas and programs associated with Several guerrilla groups emerged, the largest and most active of which was the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP). The Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP was the military branch of the Communist PRT ( Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores, or Workers' Revolutionary After Perón's death in 1974, the government was left in the hands of his widow, Isabel Martínez de Perón, who signed a number of decrees empowering the military and the police to "annihilate" left-wing subversion. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former Martínez de Perón was ousted in 1976. Starting that year, the juntas led by Videla until 1981, and then by Roberto Viola and Leopoldo Galtieri, were responsible for the illegal arrest, torture, killing or forced disappearance of thousands of people, primarily trade-unionists, students and activists. A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, Roberto Eduardo Viola Prevedini ( October 13 1924 &ndash September 30 1994) was a military officer who briefly served as president Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli ( July 15, 1926 - January 12, 2003) was an Argentine general and President of Argentina A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. Videla's dictatorship referred to its systematized persecution of the Argentine citizenry as the "National Reorganization Process". The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders
Up to 30,000 people "disappeared" during this time. [1] Argentine security forces and death squads worked hand in hand with other South American dictatorships in the frame of Operation Condor. For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign An Argentine court would later condemn the government's crimes as crimes against humanity and "genocide". In Public international law, a crime against humanity is an act of Persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people and is the highest level of Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group [2]
Origin of the term
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The term "Dirty War" originates in the military junta itself, which claimed that a war, albeit with "different" methods (including the large-scale application of torture), was necessary to maintain social order. This article is about the History of Argentina. See also History of South America, History of Latin America, History of the Americas, and The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was the last and most shortlived Viceroyalty created by Spain in 1776 The British invasions of the Río de la Plata (Invasiones Inglesas del Río de la Plata were a series of unsuccessful British attempts to seize control of the Spanish The May Revolution (in Spanish: Revolución de Mayo) was a series of political and social events in the Nineteenth century city of The Argentine War of Independence was fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine forces under Manuel Belgrano and José de San Martín against royalist forces loyal The Congress of Tucumán was the representative assembly of the United Provinces of the River Plate formed in 1816 initially meeting in Tucumán. The Argentine Constitution of 1853 was the first constitution of Argentina, approved with the support of the governments of the provinces &mdashthough The Conquest of the Desert (Conquista del desierto was a military campaign directed mainly by General Julio Argentino Roca in the 1870s which established Argentine dominance The Generation of '80 ( Spanish: Generación del '80) was the governing elite in Argentina from 1880 to 1916 The original inhabitants of Argentina were descendants of Asian peoples that crossed the Bering Land Bridge into North America and then over thousands Juan Domingo Perón (October 8 1895 &ndash July 1 1974 was an Argentine Colonel and Politician, elected three times as President of Argentina María Eva Duarte de Perón' ( May 7 1919 &ndash July 26 1952) was the second wife of President Juan Domingo Perón The Eva Perón Foundation was a charitable foundation begun by Eva Perón, a prominent Argentine political leader, when she was the First Lady and The Female Peronist Party, also known as the Feminist Peronist Party and the Peronist Feminist Party was the women's branch of the Peronist Justicialist María Eva Duarte de Perón' ( May 7 1919 &ndash July 26 1952) was the second wife of President Juan Domingo Perón The General Confederation of Labour ( Confederación General del Trabajo de la República Argentina, CGT is a national trade union center of Argentina founded The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders The Falklands War (Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del Atlántico Sur also called the Falklands Conflict/Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo is an association of Argentine Mothers whose children " disappeared quot during The Trial of the Juntas (Spanish Juicio a las Juntas) was the judicial trial of the members of the de facto military government that ruled Argentina The es Carapintadas (Painted Faces were a group of mutineers in the Argentine Army, who took part in uprisings during the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín The December 2001 riots were a period of civil unrest and rioting in Argentina, which took place during December 2001, with the most violent incidents For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. June 1806 '''1st British Invasion of the Rio del la Plata'''. Ideas and practices of nationality and citizenship in the Republic of Argentina (and before that in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and the Inca Empire This is a timeline of Argentine history. To read about the background to these events see History of Argentina. Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally This explanation has been questioned in court and by human rights NGOs, as it suggests that a "civil war" was going on, thereby implying justification for the killings. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Thus, during the 1985 Trial of the Juntas, public prosecutor Julio Strassera suggested that the term "Dirty War" was a "euphemism to try to conceal gang activities" as though they were legitimate military activities. The Trial of the Juntas (Spanish Juicio a las Juntas) was the judicial trial of the members of the de facto military government that ruled Argentina [3]
Although the junta claimed its objective to be the eradication of guerrilla activity, the repression struck mostly the general population, and specifically all political opposition, trade unionists (half of the victims), students, and other civilians. Many others were forced to go into exile, and many remain in exile today (despite the return of democracy in 1983). It was made clear during the Trial of the Juntas that the guerrillas, despite the use of the term "war", were not in a position to pose a real threat, and could not be considered a belligerent: "The subversives had not taken control of any part of the national territory; they had not obtained recognition of interior or anterior belligerency, they were not massively supported by any foreign power, and they lacked the population's support. A belligerent is an individual group country or other entity which acts in a hostile manner such as engaging in Combat. "[4] Thus, crimes committed during this time may not be covered under the laws of war (jus in bello), which shields soldiery of inferior rank from prosecution for acts committed under military or state orders. The law of war (also law of armed conflict, LOAC) is Law concerning acceptable practices relating to war
The program of extermination of dissidents was termed "genocide" by a court of law, for the first time in the official treatment of illegal crimes of the dictatorship, during the 2006 trial of Miguel Etchecolatz, a former senior official of the Buenos Aires Provincial Police. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group Miguel Osvaldo Etchecolatz (born 1929 was a senior Argentine Police officer, who worked in the Buenos Aires Provincial Police during the first years of Police Ranks Until January 2005 the Buenos Aires Police used the same rank system as employed by the Federal Police [2]
The return of Peronism
Ever since former army officer Juan Perón was ousted from the presidency by a coup in 1955 (Revolución Libertadora), military hostility to Peronism had dominated Argentine politics. Juan Domingo Perón (October 8 1895 &ndash July 1 1974 was an Argentine Colonel and Politician, elected three times as President of Argentina The President of Argentina (full title President of the Argentine Nation, Spanish: Presidente de la Nación Argentina) is the Head of state The Revolución Libertadora ( Spanish, Liberating Revolution) was a military uprising that ended the second presidential term of Peronism (Peronismo or Justicialism (Spanish Justicialismo) is an Argentine political movement based on the ideas and programs associated with The 1963 Aramburu decree had gone as far as prohibiting the use of Perón's name, and when General Lanusse, who had seized power in 1971, called for elections in 1973 and authorized the return of political parties, Perón — who had been invited back from exile — was debarred from seeking office. Pedro Eugenio Aramburu Cilveti Army General Born in Río Cuarto, Córdoba on May 21, Alejandro Agustín Lanusse Gelly ( August 28 1918, Buenos Aires Argentina - August 26 1996, Buenos Aires was the military A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral This led to the May 1973 election of Peronist Héctor José Cámpora, a moderate and left-wing Peronist elected as Perón's "personal delegate", circumventing the law that forbid Perón running for office. Héctor José Cámpora Demaestre (1909-1980 was president of Argentina from May 25 until July 13 1973.
Peronism has been difficult to define according to traditional political classifications, and different periods must be distinguished. A populist and nationalist movement, it has sometimes been accused of Fascist tendencies; Perón's admiration for Benito Mussolini is often cited in support of that assertion. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Argentina became a popular country of exile for ex-Nazis who entered clandestinity after World War II and fled using various ratlines. In the context of this article the term ex-Nazi, or more correctly ex-Nazi Party member refers either to those few who were once Nazis and resigned from the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Ratlines were systems of escape routes for Nazis and other Fascists fleeing Europe at the end of World War II. However, this has been strongly disputed by others, inside and outside the Peronist movement, and it might as well be compared with Gaullism in France, which at first succeeded in creating in the immediate post-war period a large coalition from the left-wing (excluding only Communists) to the right-wing, before turning itself into a more conservative movement in the 1960s-70s. Gaullism (Gaullisme is a French political ideology based on the thought and action of Charles de Gaulle. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined
The absence of Perón himself, who spent 20 years in exile in Franquist Spain, is central to understanding Peronism, as his name was often invoked nostalgically by Argentines in all walks of life in protest of societal ills. Eva Perón, First Lady of Argentina from 1946 to her death in 1952, was warmly remembered by the working class, although she was despised by the "national bourgeoisie". María Eva Duarte de Perón' ( May 7 1919 &ndash July 26 1952) was the second wife of President Juan Domingo Perón Thus, the left-wing and Catholic Montoneros supported Perón as well as, at its end, the Fascist-leaning and strongly anti-Semitic Movimiento Nacionalista Tacuara, one of Argentine's first guerrilla movements. The Montonero Peronist Movement (Movimiento Peronista Montonero was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group active during the 1960s and 1970s The Movimiento Nacionalista Tacuara (MNT Tacuara Nationalist Movement) was an Argentine Far right group in the 1960s which after having violently Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc
Following nearly two decades of weak civilian governments, economic decline, and military interventionism, Perón returned from exile on 20 June 1973 as the country was becoming engulfed in immense financial, social and political disorder. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. The months preceding his return were marked by important social movements, as in the rest of South America, and in particular of the Southern Cone before the repression of the 1970s. Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific Thus, during Héctor Cámpora's first months of government (May-July 1973), approximatively 600 social conflicts, strikes and factory occupations had taken place. Héctor José Cámpora Demaestre (1909-1980 was president of Argentina from May 25 until July 13 1973. Worker self-management (or autogestion) is a form of workplace decision-making in which the workers themselves agree on choices (for issues like customer care general production [5]
Upon Perón's arrival at Buenos Aires Airport, snipers (including members of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance, or Triple A) opened fire on the crowds of left-wing Peronist sympathizers. The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance ( Alianza Anticomunista Argentina, usually known as Triple A or AAA was a Far-right Death squad active in Known as the Ezeiza massacre, this event marked the split between left-wing and right-wing factions of Peronism. The Ezeiza massacre took place on June 20, 1973 near the Ezeiza International Airport in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Perón was re-elected in 1973, backed by a broad coalition that ranged from trade unionists in the center to fascists on the right (including members of the neofascist Movimiento Nacionalista Tacuara) and socialists like the Montoneros led by Mario Firmenich on the left. The Movimiento Nacionalista Tacuara (MNT Tacuara Nationalist Movement) was an Argentine Far right group in the 1960s which after having violently Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The Montonero Peronist Movement (Movimiento Peronista Montonero was an Argentine left-wing Peronist guerrilla group active during the 1960s and 1970s Following the Ezeiza massacre, and Perón's denouncing of "bearded immature idealists", Perón sided with the Peronist right-wing, the trade-unionist bureaucracy and Radical Civic Union of Ricardo Balbín, Héctor José Cámpora's unsuccessful rival at the May 1973 elections. The Radical Civic Union (in Spanish Unión Cívica Radical, UCR) is a Political party in Argentina. Ricardo Balbín (born on July 19, 1904 in Buenos Aires - died September 9 1981) was an Argentine lawyer and politician The Montoneros were finally expelled from the Justicialist Party by Perón in May 1974. The Justicialist Party ( Spanish: Partido Justicialista, PJ) is a Peronist political party in Argentina, and the largest component However, the Montoneros waited until after the death of Perón in July 1974 to react, with the exception of the assassination of José Ignacio Rucci, the right-wing Peronist Secretary General of the General Confederation of Labour (CGT) on 25 September 1973, and some other military actions. The General Confederation of Labour ( Confederación General del Trabajo de la República Argentina, CGT is a national trade union center of Argentina founded Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. They would then claim the "social revolutionary vision of authentic Peronism" and start guerrilla operations against Isabel Perón's government, who represented the Peronist right-wing. A main aim of the Montoneros was to push authorities into repression, even severe repression, in the belief that in the end it would prove self defeating.
Isabel Martínez de Perón's government
Perón died on 1 July 1974, and was replaced by his vice-president and third wife, Isabel Martínez de Perón, who ruled Argentina until her March 1976 overthrow by the militaries. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1974 ( MCMLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former
The 1985 CONADEP human rights commission counted 458 assassinations from 1973 to 1975 in its report Nunca Más (Never Again): 19 in 1973, 50 in 1974 and 359 in 1975, carried out by paramilitary groups, who acted mostly under the José López Rega's Triple A death squad (according to Argenpress, at least 25 trade-unionists were assassinated in 1974[6]). The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish es Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas, CONADEP was an Argentine organization José López Rega ( 17 October 1916 &ndash 9 June 1989) was Argentina 's Minister of Social Welfare during the Peronist The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance ( Alianza Anticomunista Argentina, usually known as Triple A or AAA was a Far-right Death squad active in The Triple A had been created by José López Rega and Rodolfo Almirón (arrested in Spain in 2006 and extradited to Argentina in 2008). -->If you have just labeled this page as needing such attention please add{{substDuflu | pg= | Language = | Comments López Rega was successively Minister of Social Welfare under Héctor José Cámpora, Raúl Alberto Lastiri, Perón and Isabel Perón and private secretary of the last two. Héctor José Cámpora Demaestre (1909-1980 was president of Argentina from May 25 until July 13 1973. Raúl Alberto Lastiri (1915-1978 was an Argentine politician who was interim president of Argentina from July 13 1973 until October 12 Furthermore, after the 1980 police arrest of Licio Gelli, head of Propaganda Due (aka P2), a masonesque lodge involved in Italy's strategy of tension, in a villa in the French Côte d'Azur, it was discovered that Isabel Perón's Minister for Social Affairs, López Rega, had also been a member of this lodge. Licio Gelli (born in Pistoia, Tuscany, April 21, 1919) is an Italian Financier, chiefly known for his role in the Propaganda Due or P2 was a Masonic lodge operating under the jurisdiction of the Grand Orient of Italy from 1877 to 1976 (when its charter was withdrawn A strategy of tension (strategia della tensione is an alleged way used by world powers to divide manipulate and control Public opinion using Fear, Propaganda The French Riviera (Côte d'Azur Occitan: Còsta Azzura) is one of the most famous resort areas in the world extending along the Mediterranean Sea west
One of the first terror attacks of the Triple A targeted Hipólito Solari Yrigoyen with a car bomb on 21 November 1973, which seriously injured him. A car bomb is an explosive device placed in a car or other Vehicle and then detonated. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. A few days earlier, Solari Yrigoyen had criticized in the Senate the reform of laws concerning workers' trade-unions, which aimed at tightening the control of the trade-union bureaucracy on the workers' movement. The Argentine Senate is the upper house of parliament in Argentina. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government The labour movement or labor movement is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better A few days before the bombing, a leading representative of the trade-unionist bureaucracy, Lorenzo Miguel, had qualified Solari Yrigoyen as "public enemy number one. " The Triple A also assassinated Silvio Frondizi, brother of former president Arturo Frondizi, in September 1974, etc. Silvio Frondizi ( Paso de los Libres, Corrientes Province, January 19, 1907 &mdash September 27, 1974) was an Argentine Arturo Frondizi Ercoli ( October 28, 1908 - April 18, 1995) was the President of Argentina between 1 May
However, the repression of the social movements had already started before the attempt on Yrigoyen's life: on 17 July 1973, the CGT section in Salta was closed, while the CGT, SMATA and Luz y Fuerza in Córdoba were victims of armed attacks. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. The General Confederation of Labour ( Confederación General del Trabajo de la República Argentina, CGT is a national trade union center of Argentina founded For the village in Bangladesh see Salta Bangladesh. Salta is a city in northwestern Argentina and the capital city of the Salta Córdoba is a province of Argentina, located in the center of the country Agustín Tosco, Secretary General of Luz y Fuerza, successfully dissimulated him avoiding his arrestation, and entered clandestinity until his death on 5 November 1975. The ClanDestine (also known simply as ClanDestine) is a Comic book series about the Destines a secret family of long-lived Superhuman Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [6]
Trade-unionists were also targeted by the repression in 1973: Carlos Bache was assassinated on 21 August 1973; Enrique Damiano, of the Taxis Trade-Union of Córdoba, on 3 October; Juan Avila, also of Córdoba, the following day; Pablo Fredes, on 30 October in Buenos Aires; Adrián Sánchez, on 8 November 1973 in the Province of Jujuy. Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Jujuy is a province of Argentina, located in the extreme northwest of the country at the borders with Chile and Bolivia. Assassinations of trade-unionists, lawyers, etc. continued and increased in 1974 and 1975, while the most combative trade-unions were closed and their leaders arrested. In August 1974, Isabel Peron's government took out the right of trade-unionist representation of the Federación Gráfica Bonaerense, and its Secretary General Raimundo Ongaro arrested in October 1974. [6]
During the same month of August 1974, the SMATA Córdoba trade-union, in conflict with the company Ika Renault, was closed by the national direction of trade-unions, and the majority of its leaders and activists arrested. Most of them, including its Secretary General René Salamanca, were assassinated during the 1976–83 dictatorship. Atilio López, General Secretary of the CGT of Córdoba and former Vice-Governor of the Province, was assassinated in Buenos Aires on 16 September 1974. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1974 ( MCMLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. [6]
The ERP publicly remained in the forefront. ERP guerrilla activity took the form of attacks on military outposts, police stations and convoys. On 19 January 1974 70 ERP men attacked the barracks at Azul, killing the Commanding Officer of the 10th 'Húsares de Pueyrredon' Armoured Cavalry Regiment, Colonel Camilo Arturo Gay and his wife, Hilda Irma Casaux de Gay and capturing the Commanding Officer of the 1st Artillery Regiment, Lieutenant-Colonel Jorge Roberto Ibarzabal. In another case, the famous ERP "Compañía Ramón Rosa Jiménez" — about 300 strong and a first class unit — struck the 17th Airborne Infantry Regiment at Catamarca. The attack involved some 90 members of the "Compañía Ramón Rosa Jiménez" who on 10 August, dressed in Army fatigues raided the parachute unit at Catamarca in an apparent attempt to kidnap the Commanding Officer. In 10 years of guerrilla operations (1969–79) there were 1,501 killings, 1. 748 kidnappings, 5,215 bombings and 45 major attacks on military units blamed on leftist guerrillas. [7]
"Annihilation decrees"
Meanwhile, the Guevarist People's Revolutionary Army (ERP), led by Roberto Santucho and inspired by Che Guevara's foco theory, began a rural insurgency in the province of Tucumán, in the mountainous northwest of Argentina. Operativo Independencia ( Spanish for "Operation Independence" was the code-name of the Argentine military operation in the Tucumán Province, Guevarism is a theory of Communist revolution and a Military strategy of Guerrilla warfare associated with Marxist revolutionary Ernesto The Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP was the military branch of the Communist PRT ( Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores, or Workers' Revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed The Foco theory of revolutionary guerrilla tactics was introduced by Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928-1967 in his manual on Guerrilla warfare Tucumán is a province of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country It started the campaign with no more than 100 men and women and ended with about 300 in the mountains, which the Argentinean Army managed to control. On 5 January 1975, an Airforce C-47 transport plane was downed near the Monteros mountains, apparently shot down by Guerrillas. All thirteen on board were killed. The military believed a SA-7 shoulder-fired missile struck an engine. In response, Ítalo Luder, President of the National Assembly who acted as interim President substituting himself to Isabel Perón who was ill for a short period, signed in February 1975 the secret presidential decree 261, which ordered the army to neutralize and/or annihilate the insurgency in Tucumán, the smallest province of Argentina. Tucumán is a province of Argentina, located in the northwest of the country In contravention of the Constitution, Operativo Independencia gave power to the Armed Forces to "execute all military operations necessary for the effects of neutralizing or annihilating the action of subversive elements acting in the Province of Tucumán. The constitution of Argentina is one of the primary sources of exisiting law in Argentina. Operativo Independencia ( Spanish for "Operation Independence" was the code-name of the Argentine military operation in the Tucumán Province, "[8][9] Santucho had declared a 620-mile (1,000 km) "liberated zone" in Tucuman and demanded Soviet-backed protection for its borders as well as proper treatment of captured guerrillas as prisoners of war. [10] The Fifth Brigade, then consisting of the 19th, 20th and 29th Mountain Infantry Regiments and commanded by Brigadier-General Acdel Vilas received the order to move to Famailla in the foothills of the Monteros mountains on 8 February 1975. While fighting the guerrilla in the jungle, Vilas concentrated on uprooting the ERP support network in the towns, using state terror tactics later adopted nation-wide, as well as a civic action campaign. State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments The Argentinean security forces used techniques no different from their US and French counterparts. By July 1975, anti-guerrilla commandos were mounting search-and-destroy missions in the snow-capped mountains. Search and Destroy, or Seek and Destroy, or Zippo or even simply S&D, refers to a military Strategy that became a notorious component of the Army forces discovered Santucho's base camp in August, then raided the ERP urban headquarters in September. Most of the Compania del Monte's general staff was killed in October and was dispersed by the end of the year. While the leadership of the movement was mostly eradicated, many of the ERP soldiers and sympathizers were taken into custody as political prisoners. The Argentineans have admitted to 43 troops killed in action in Tucuman although this figure does not take into account police and Gendarmerie troops. By December 1975 the Argentinean military could, with some justification claim that it was winning the 'Dirty War', but it was dismayed to find no evidence of overall victory. On 23 December 1975 several hundred ERP fighters staged an all-out battle with the 601st Arsenal Battalion nine miles (14 km) from Buenos Aires. 85 guerrillas, seven army troops and three policemen were killed. In addition 20 civilians were killed in the crossfire. It was a development which the army officers, together with certain elements of the airforce, could not tolerate, and one which was to have far-reaching ramnifications. On 30 December a bomb exploded at the headquarters of the Argentinean Army in Buenos Aires, injuring at least six officers of senior-rank. The credibility of the government was now destroyed and the strategy of attrition was bankrupt. The Montoneros had even successfully utilized divers in underwater infiltrations and sunk an Argentine destroyer, the ARA Santísima Trinidad on 22 August 1975.
By mid-1975, the country was a stage for widespread violence. Extreme right-wing death squads used their hunt for far-left guerrillas as a pretext to exterminate any and all ideological opponents on the left and as a cover for common crimes. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Assassinations and kidnappings by the Peronist Montoneros and the ERP contributed to the general climate of fear. In July, there was a general strike. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country On 6 July 1975, the government, presided temporarily by Italo Luder from the Peronist party, issued three decrees to combat the guerrillas. Events 1044 - The Battle of Ménfő takes place 1189 - Richard the Lionheart is crowned King of England Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The decrees 2770, 2771 and 2772 created a Defense Council headed by the president and including his ministers and the chiefs of the armed forces. [11][12][13] It was given the command of the national and provincial police and correctional facilities and its mission was to "annihilate … subversive elements throughout the country". Military control was thus generalized to all of the country. These "annihilation decrees" are the source of the charges against her which led to Isabel Perón's arrest in Madrid more than thirty years later, in January 2007. The country was then divided into five military zones through a 28 October 1975 military directive of "Struggle Against Subversion". Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. As had been done during the 1957 Battle of Algiers (quadrillage), each zone was divided in subzones and areas, with its corresponding military responsibles. General Antonio Domingo Bussi replaced in December 1975 Acdel Vidas as responsible of the military operations.
20 March 1975 raid in Santa Fe
Isabel Perón's government ordered a raid on 20 March 1975, which involved 4,000 military and police officers, in Villa Constitución, Santa Fe, in response to various trade-unionist conflicts. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Santa Fe is the capital city of province of Santa Fe, Argentina. Many citizens and 150 activists and trade-unionists leaders were arrested, while the Unión Obrera Metalúrgica's subsidiary in Villa Constitución was closed down with the agreement of the trade-unions' national direction, headed by Lorenzo Miguel. [6] Repression affected trade-unionists of large firms, such as Ford, Fiat, Renault, Mercedes Benz, Peugeot, etc. Ford Motor Company is an American Multinational corporation and the world's fourth largest automaker based on Worldwide vehicle sales, following Fiat SpA (an Acronym for Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino (Italian Automobile Factory of Turin) is an Italian automobile manufacturer This is about the company for other uses see Renault (disambiguation. Mercedes-Benz is a German manufacturer of luxury Automobiles Buses coaches and Trucks It is currently a division of the For the article about the bicycle manufacturer see Cycles Peugeot. , and was sometimes carried on with support from the firm's executives and from the trade-unionist bureaucracy. José Rodríguez, for example, has been accused of being involved in the "disappearance" of Mercedes Benz workers during the dictatorship. He was the same trade-unionist leader who in 1974 closed down SMATA's section in Córdoba — and who is today General Secretary of SMATA. [6]
The military's rise to power
Conservatives, including some among the wealthy elite, encouraged the army, which prepared to take control by making lists of people who should be "dealt with" after the planned coup. The 1976 Argentine coup was a Coup d'état that overthrew Isabel Perón on 24 March 1976, in Argentina. Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined In 1975, President Isabel Perón, under pressure from the military establishment, appointed Jorge Rafael Videla commander-in-chief of the Argentine Army. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo (born August 21, 1925 in Mercedes Buenos Aires) was the dictator and President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981 "As many people as necessary must die in Argentina so that the country will again be secure", Videla declared in 1975 in support of the death squads. He was one of the military heads of the coup d'état that overthrew Isabel Perón on 24 March 1976. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In her place, a military junta was installed, which was headed by Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera (also a member of the P2 freemasonry lodge), who stepped out in September 1978, General Orlando Agosti and Videla himself. Emilio Eduardo Massera (born October 19, 1925, Paraná, Entre Ríos) is a former Argentine military officer and part of the 1976 During 1976, Videla narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in which a time bomb planted in the reviewing stand at the vast Campo de Mayo barracks blew out a metre-wide hole at the exact spot where he had been standing.
The junta, which dubbed itself "National Reorganization Process", systematized the repression, in particular through the way of "forced disappearances" (desaparecidos), which made it very difficult, as in Augusto Pinochet's Chile, to depose courtsuits as the bodies were never found. The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (November Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the The Generals organized a nation-wide system, from national scale to local scale, to track down so-called "subversives. " Physicians and psychiatrists were also used by the state in the interrogation and torture sessions. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Interrogation or questioning is Interviewing as commonly employed by officers of the Police and Military. Argentine newspaper La Opinión, founded by future "desaparecido" Jacobo Timerman, wrote on 31 December 1976 that the Argentine "guerrilla" has suffered losses of 4000, and that the Montoneros had lost 80% of their leaders. La Opinión is a Spanish-language daily Newspaper published in Los Angeles California and distributed throughout the six counties of Jacobo Timerman ( January 6, 1923 – November 11, 1999) was a publisher journalist and author Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Buenos Aires Herald, on its side, estimated the victims in 1976 to be 1,100 dead. The Buenos Aires Herald is an English language daily Newspaper from Buenos Aires, Argentina. A clandestine newspaper added that "there is one dead each five hours, and one bomb each three hours. " According to Argentine journalist Stella Calloni, author of the classic Los años del lobo, all of these numbers may be correct. [14]
This generalization of state terror tactics has been explained in part by the information received by the Argentine militaries in the infamous School of Americas and also by French instructors from the secret services, who taught them "counter-insurgency" tactics first experimented during the Algerian War (1954-62). State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments The Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation ( WHISC or WHINSEC) formerly the School of the Americas ( SOA; Spanish: List of Intelligence agencies of France:;DGSE General Directorate for External Security - Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from [6][15]
In 1976 there was a successful series of Montoneros bomb attacks in which the general commanding the Federal Police, Cesáreo Cardozo was killed. Lieutenant-General Jorge Videla himself narrowly escaped three Montoneros assassination attempts between February 1976 and April 1977. As pressure mounted on the Montoneros, the urban guerrillas struck back. On 2 July 1976 a Claymore shrapnel mine exploded at the headquarters of the Federal Police in west Buenos Aires during a secret meeting of the police leadership, killing 21 and mutilating a further 60. On 12 September 1976 a car bomb destroyed a bus filled with police officers in Rosario, killing 11 policemen and injuring at least 12. On 17 October a bomb blast in an Army Club Cinema in downtown Buenos Aires killed 11 and wounded about 50 officers and their families. On 16 December, another bomb planted in a Defense Ministry movie hall killed at least 14 and injured 30 officers and their families.
Furthermore, by 1976 Operation Condor, which had already centralized information from South American intelligence agencies for years, was at its height. For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign Chilean exiles in Argentina were threatened again, and had to go into hiding or seek refuge in a third country. Chilean General Carlos Prats had already been assassinated by the Chilean DINA in Buenos Aires in 1974, with the help of former CIA agent Michael Townley and DINA agent Enrique Arancibia. General Carlos Prats González ( February 24, 1915 - September 30, 1974) was a Chilean Army officer a Political figure Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional ( English: National Intelligence Directorate) or DINA was the Chilean Secret police in the government For the Australian politician see Michael Townley (Australian politician. Enrique Arancibia is a former Chilean DINA agent who resided in unofficial exile in Buenos Aires after the assassination of Chilean Army Chief of Staff René Schneider Cuban diplomats were also assassinated in Buenos Aires in the infamous Automotores Orletti torture center, one of the 300 clandestine prisons of the dictatorship, managed by the Grupo de Tareas 18, headed by Aníbal Gordon, previously convicted for armed robbery, and answered directly to the General Commandant of the SIDE, Otto Paladino. History The Secretariat of Intelligence was created in 1946 when Juan Perón 's first presidency established it by Executive Decree 337/46 under the denomination of Automotores Orletti was the main base of foreign intelligence services involved in Operation Condor. One of the survivors, José Luis Bertazzo, who was detained for two months there, identified Chileans, Uruguayans, Paraguayans and Bolivians among the prisoners. These captives were interrogated by agents from their own countries. It is there that 19 year-old daughter-in-law of the poet Juan Gelman was tortured (along with his son), before being transported to Montevideo, where she delivered a baby which was immediately taken from her by the Uruguayan authorities. Juan Gelman (born 3 May 1930) is an Argentine poet. He has published more than twenty books of poetry since 1956 [14] According to John Dinges's Los años del Cóndor, Chilean MIR prisoners in Orletti center told José Luis Bertazzo that they had seen two Cuban diplomats, 22 years-old Jesús Cejas Arias, and 26 years-old Crescencio Galañega, tortured by Gordon's group and interrogated by a man who specially came one day from Miami to interrogate them. John Dinges was special correspondent for Time, Washington Post and ABC Radio in Chile. Mir (Мир which can mean both Peace and World, and was the name given to peasant communes in pre-revolutionary Russia was a Soviet (and The two Cuban diplomats, charged with the protection of the Cuban embassador to Argentina, Emilio Aragonés, had been kidnapped on 9 August 1976, in the intersection between Calle Arribeños and Virrey del Pino, by 40 armed SIDE agents who blocked off all sides of the street with their Ford Falcons, the cars used by the security forces during the dictatorship. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Argentinian Ford Falcon is a full size car that was built by Ford Motor Company from 1962 to 1991 According to John Dinges, the FBI as well as the CIA were informed of their abduction. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all In his book Dinges published a cable sent by Robert Scherrer, an FBI agent in Buenos Aires on 22 September 1976, where he mentions in passing that former CIA agent Michael Townley, later convicted of the assassination on 21 September 1976 of former Chilean minister Orlando Letelier in Washington D. Events 66 - Emperor Nero creates the Legion I Italica. 1236 - The Lithuanians Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For the Australian politician see Michael Townley (Australian politician. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Marcos Orlando Letelier del Solar ( April 13, 1932 - September 21, 1976) was a Chilean economist Political figure, C. , had also taken part to the interrogation of the two Cubans. Former head of the DINA confirmed to Argentine federal judge María Servini de Cubría on 22 December 1999, in Santiago de Chile, the presence of Michael Townley and Cuban Guillermo Novo Sampoll in the Orletti center. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) The two men travelled from Chile to Argentina on 11 August 1976, and "cooperated in the torture and assassination of the two Cuban diplomats. Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. " Anti-Castro Cuban terrorist Luis Posada Carriles also boasted in his autobiography, "Los caminos del guerrero", of the murder of the two young men. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until Luis Clemente Faustino Posada Carriles (born February 15, 1928) is a Cuban born Venezuelan anti- Castro terrorist [14] According to the "terror archives" discovered in Paraguay in 1992, 50,000 persons were murdered in the frame of Condor, 30,000 "disappeared" (desaparecidos) and 400,000 incarcerated. The "Archives of Terror" (Archivos del Terror were found on December 22, 1992 by a lawyer Dr A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. [16][17]
False flag actions by SIDE agents
During a 1981 interview whose contents were revealed by documents declassified by the CIA in 2000, former CIA and DINA agent Michael Townley explained that Ignacio Novo Sampol, member of CORU anti-Castro organization, had agreed to commit the Cuban Nationalist Movement in the kidnapping, in Buenos Aires, of a president of a Dutch bank. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all For the Australian politician see Michael Townley (Australian politician. Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations (CORU has been described by the FBI as "an anti- Castro terrorist umbrella organization" The opposition to Fidel Castro ' s Marxist Government is largely unofficial and illegal within Cuba itself The abduction, organized by civilian SIDE agents, the Argentine intelligence agency, was to obtain a ransom. History The Secretariat of Intelligence was created in 1946 when Juan Perón 's first presidency established it by Executive Decree 337/46 under the denomination of Townley said that Novo Sampol had provided $6,000 from the Cuban Nationalist Movement, forwarded to the civilian SIDE agents to pay for the preparation expenses of the kidnapping. After returning to the US, Novo Sampol sent Townley a stock of paper, used to print pamphlets in the name of "Grupo Rojo" (Red Group), an imaginary Argentine Marxist terrorist organization, which was to claim credit for the sequestration of the Dutch banker. Townley declared that the pamphlets were distributed in Mendoza and Córdoba in relation with false flag bombings perpetrated by SIDE agents, which had as aim to accredit the existence of the fake Grupo Rojo. Córdoba, abbreviated as CBA, is a city located near the geographical center of Argentina, in the foothills of the Sierras Chicas mountains on the However, the SIDE agents procrastinated too much, and the kidnapping finally was not carried out. [18]
Human rights violations from 1976 to 1983
In 1976, one of the generals predicted, ";We are going to have to kill 50,000 people: 25,000 subversives, 20,000 sympathizers, and we will make 5,000 mistakes. Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. " The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP) researched and recorded, case by case, the "disappearance" of about 9,000 persons, though it was made clear that many more could exist; today, the most commonly accepted estimate by human rights organizations places the number at 30,000. The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish es Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas, CONADEP was an Argentine organization A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. Human rights groups such as Amnesty International were gravely concerned by the state's use of 'disappearances' and periodical use of extrajudicial killings against the supposed 'subversives'. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to For extrajudicial executions see also Assassination Extra-judicial killings are the illegal killing of leading political trades union dissidents
Most victims were not armed guerrilla fighters, whose organizations were virtually liquidated, but anyone believed to be associated with activist groups, including trade-union members, students (including very young students, for example in September 1976 during the Night of the Pencils, an operation directed by Ramón Camps, General and head of the Bonaerense, the Buenos Aires Provincial Police, from April 1976 to December 1977[3]) and people thought to hold left-wing views (for example French nuns Leonie Duquet and Alice Domon, kidnapped by Alfredo Astiz). For the film see Night of the Pencils (film (1986 The Night of the Pencils (in Spanish La Noche de los Lápices) was a Ramón Juan Camps (? – 1994 was an Argentine general and the head of the Buenos Aires Provincial Police during the military Dictatorship known as the Police Ranks Until January 2005 the Buenos Aires Police used the same rank system as employed by the Federal Police Leonie Duquet (1916 – 1977 was a French nun who was killed in the Dirty War that took place during the military regime of Argentine President Alice Domon, Caty (Birth 1937 in Charquemont, Doubs, France; Missing on December 17 or 18 1977 near Santa Teresita by the Argentine Alfredo Ignacio Astiz (born 8 November 1951) was a Captain and Intelligence officer in the Argentine Navy during the dictatorial rule of Ramón Camps told Clarín, in 1984, that he had used torture as a method of interrogation and orchestrated 5,000 forced disappearances, and justified the appropriation of newborns from their imprisoned mothers "because subversive parents will raise subversive children". Clarín is a major Newspaper in Argentina, founded by Roberto Noble on August 28 1945. [19]Many of the "disappeared" were pushed out of planes and into the Río de la Plata or the Atlantic Ocean to drown. The Río de la Plata ( Spanish: " Silver River" &mdash which is often referred to in English-speaking countries as the River Plate This form of disappearance, theorized by Luis Maria Mendia, former chief of naval operations in 1976-77 who is today before the court for his role in the ESMA case, was termed vuelos de la muerte ("death flights"). A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration. Luis María Mendía (1925- May 2007 was the Argentine Chief of Naval Operations in 1976-77 with the rank of Vice-admiral. The Navy Petty-Officers School of Mechanics (in Spanish Escuela de Suboficiales de Mecánica de la Armada, previously Escuela Superior de Mecánica de la Armada The so-called death flights (Spanish vuelos de la muerte) were a form of Forced disappearance routinely practiced during the Argentine " Dirty War," These individuals which suddenly vanished are called los desaparecidos meaning "the missing ones" or "vanishing ones. "
Tomás Di Toffino, Deputy Secretary General of Luz y Fuerza de Córdoba, was kidnapped on 28 November 1976 and executed in a military camp in Córdoba on 28 February 1977, in a "military ceremony" presided by General Luciano Benjamín Menéndez. For the town in Argentina, see 28 de Noviembre. Events Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays [6]
In December 1976, 22 political prisoners were tortured and executed during the Massacre of Margarita Belén, in the military Chaco Province, for which Videla would be found guilty of homicide during the 1985 Trial of the Juntas, as well as Cristino Nicolaides, junta leader Leopoldo Galtieri and Santa Fe Provincial Police chief Wenceslao Ceniquel. The Massacre of Margarita Belén was an episode of the 1970s' " Dirty War " in Argentina. Chaco is an Argentine province located on the north of the country near the border with Paraguay. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli ( July 15, 1926 - January 12, 2003) was an Argentine general and President of Argentina See also Argentine Federal Police Buenos Aires Police Buenos Aires Urban Guard Special Operations The same year, fifty anonymous persons were illegally executed by a firing-squad in Cordoba[20]
Organizations closely associated with state terrorism included the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), the Batallón de Inteligencia 601 of the military unit, the Naval Mechanics School (ESMA), and the Secretaría de Inteligencia (SIDE). State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance ( Alianza Anticomunista Argentina, usually known as Triple A or AAA was a Far-right Death squad active in The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 ( 601st Intelligence Battalion) was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active The Argentine Army ( Ejército Argentino, EA is the land armed force branch of the Argentine military and the senior military service of the country The Navy Petty-Officers School of Mechanics (in Spanish Escuela de Suboficiales de Mecánica de la Armada, previously Escuela Superior de Mecánica de la Armada History The Secretariat of Intelligence was created in 1946 when Juan Perón 's first presidency established it by Executive Decree 337/46 under the denomination of SIDE cooperated with DINA, its Chilean counter-part, and other South American intelligence units in Operation Condor. Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional ( English: National Intelligence Directorate) or DINA was the Chilean Secret police in the government For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign
Relatives of the victims uncovered evidence that some children taken from their mothers soon after birth were being raised as the adopted children of military men, as in the case of Silvia Quintela. Silvia Quintela (1948&mdashafter 1 September 1977 was an Argentine doctor who became one of the best-known victims among " the disappeared " during the " For three decades, the Grand-Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, a group founded in 1977, has been demanding the return of these kidnapped children, estimated to number as many as five hundred. The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo is an association of Argentine Mothers whose children " disappeared quot during 77 of the kidnapped children have been located so far. [21]
In 1977, Videla told British journalists: "I emphatically deny that there are concentration camps in Argentina, or military establishments in which people are held longer than is absolutely necessary in this . Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial . . fight against subversion". Yet, there are people such as Alicia Partnoy, who was tortured and has written her story in "The Little School", who claim otherwise. Alicia Partnoy (born 1955 in Bahía Blanca, Argentina) is a Human rights activist, Poet, and translator. The Little School is a novel written by Alicia Partnoy, a woman who was " disappeared " during the Dirty War period of the History
In 1980, Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, a Catholic human rights activist who had organized the Servicio de Paz y Justicia (Peace and Justice Service) and suffered torture while held without trial for 14 months in a Buenos Aires concentration camp, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts in the defense of human rights in Argentina. Adolfo Pérez Esquivel (born November 26, 1931 in Buenos Aires, Argentina) was the recipient of the 1980 Nobel Peace Prize. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor
In 1981 Videla retired and General Roberto Eduardo Viola replaced him, but nine months later, Viola stepped down for health reasons, and General Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri took the post. Roberto Eduardo Viola Prevedini ( October 13 1924 &ndash September 30 1994) was a military officer who briefly served as president Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli ( July 15, 1926 - January 12, 2003) was an Argentine general and President of Argentina Democracy returned with Raúl Alfonsín, who created the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP) on 15 December 1983. Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín Foulkes (born 13 March 1927 in Chascomús) is an Argentine politician who was the President of Argentina The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish es Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas, CONADEP was an Argentine organization Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) Under Alfonsín, Congress would then pass the Ley de Punto Final and Ley de Obediencia Debida as amnesty laws, overturned in June 2005 by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of Argentina (in Spanish, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación) is the highest Court of Law of the Argentine
Invasion of the Falklands (Malvinas)
In 1982, the Argentine military invaded the British-controlled Falkland Islands, in a desperate attempt to gather the population around this war, lifting patriotic spirit. The Falklands War (Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del Atlántico Sur also called the Falklands Conflict/Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the The junta was quickly defeated by the British, led by Margaret Thatcher, who retook the islands. Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 It seems that the junta, so sure of the US support, thought that Great Britain would not attack for so little. The loss of the war led to the resignation of Galtieri on June 17 of the same year and a third (and last) junta was placed in power under a new president, Reynaldo Bignone. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Reynaldo Benito Antonio Bignone Ramayón (born January 21 1928) is a former Argentine general who served as President of the country from The defeat accelerated the end of the junta rule and restored the democracy in Argentina. After losing the Falklands War to the United Kingdom in 1982, mounting public opposition to the junta led to its voluntarily relinquishing power in 1983. Raul Alfonsin's civilian government took control of the country on December 10, 1983. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri Castelli, along with other members of the former junta, was arrested in late 1983 and charged in a military court with human rights violations during the Dirty War, and with mismanagement of the Falklands war.
Anti-Communism
- Further information: Operation Charly
The junta's mission was allegedly to defend against international communism. Operation Charly ( Spanish: " Operación Charly " was the code-name of the Covert operation headed by the Argentine military, with the Indeed, the "ideological war" doctrine of the Argentine military focused on eliminating the supposed social base of insurgency, as much as targeting actual guerrillas. The Argentine Army ( Ejército Argentino, EA is the land armed force branch of the Argentine military and the senior military service of the country Associated with other South American dictatorships in Operation Condor, they also worked closely with the Asian-based World Anti-Communist League and its Latin American affiliate, the Confederación Anticomunista Latinoamericana. For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign The World League for Freedom and Democracy (formerly the World Anti-Communist League) is an international Right-wing political organization founded in 1966 in In 1980, the Argentine military helped Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie, Stefano Delle Chiaie and major drug lords mount the bloody Cocaine Coup of Luis García Meza Tejada in neighboring Bolivia. In the context of this article the term ex-Nazi, or more correctly ex-Nazi Party member refers either to those few who were once Nazis and resigned from the Klaus Barbie ( October 25, 1913 &ndash September 25, 1991) was an SS - Hauptsturmführer, Soldier Stefano Delle Chiaie (born 13 September 1936 in Caserta) is a Neofascist Italian activist (founder of ''Avanguardia Nazionale'' and Luis García Meza Tejada (b August 8, 1932, La Paz, Bolivia) is a former Bolivian dictator The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. They hired 70 foreign agents for this task,[22] which was managed in particular by the 601st Intelligence Batallion headed by General Guillermo Suárez Mason. The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 ( 601st Intelligence Battalion) was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active Carlos Guillermo Suárez Mason (born on 24 January, 1924 in Buenos Aires - died on 21 June, 2005 was an Argentine military convicted for
After having been trained by the French military, the Argentine Armed Forces would train their counterparts, in Nicaragua, but also El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, in the frame of Operation Charly. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Operation Charly ( Spanish: " Operación Charly " was the code-name of the Covert operation headed by the Argentine military, with the From 1977 to 1984, after the Falklands War, the Argentine Armed Forces exported counter-insurgency tactics, including the systemic use of torture, death squads and disappearances. See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat Special force units, such as Batallón de Inteligencia 601, headed in 1979 by Colonel Jorge Alberto Muzzio, trained the Nicaraguan Contras in the 1980s, in particular in Lepaterique base. In most countries special forces (SF is a generic term for highly-trained Military teams/units that conduct specialized operations such as Reconnaissance The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 ( 601st Intelligence Battalion) was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua 's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional Sandinista Junta of National Lepaterique is a Municipality in the Honduran department of Francisco Morazán. Following the release of classified documents and an interview with Duane Clarridge, former CIA responsible for those operations, the Clarín showed that with the election of President Jimmy Carter in 1977, the CIA was blocked from engaging in the special warfare it had previously delivered against opponents. Duane Ramsdell "Dewey" Clarridge (1932– a CIA operative and supervisor for more than 30 years became famous in the mid-1980s for his role in the Contra near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 In most countries special forces (SF is a generic term for highly-trained Military teams/units that conduct specialized operations such as Reconnaissance In conformity with the National Security Doctrine, the Argentine militaries then did the work the most conservative North-American elements wanted to achieve, while they pressured the US to be more active in counter-revolutionary activities. And finally, they submitted themselves to Washington's control following the access of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1981. [23]
Many Chilean and Uruguayan exiles in Argentina were murdered there by Argentine security forces (including high-profile figures such as General Carlos Prats in Buenos Aires in 1974). General Carlos Prats González ( February 24, 1915 - September 30, 1974) was a Chilean Army officer a Political figure Central Intelligence Agency documents released in 2002 show that Argentina's brutal policies were known and tolerated by the United States State Department, led by Henry Kissinger under Gerald Ford's presidency, and that the Argentine military knew the U. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr (July 14 1913 December 26 2006 was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977 and the fortieth Vice President S. supported the repression. [24]
Since the end of the dictatorship, some former military, politicians and journalists have tried to justify these crimes as either regrettable or simply inevitable "excesses" brought about by the nature of the enemy (that is, the insurgency), which employed the same tactics. Critics have coined the phrase "theory of the two demons" to qualify the alleged thesis that views the forces of law of the national state and the radical subversive groups as morally comparable entities. The theory of the two Demons ( Teoría de los dos demonios) is a Rhetorical device used in Argentine political discourse to disqualify arguments Opponents of this theory talk of a deliberate strategy of tension. A strategy of tension (strategia della tensione is an alleged way used by world powers to divide manipulate and control Public opinion using Fear, Propaganda
US involvement
According to the National Security Archive, the junta led by Jorge Rafael Videla believed it had US approval for its all-out assault on the left in the name of "national security doctrine". The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo (born August 21, 1925 in Mercedes Buenos Aires) was the dictator and President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981 The US Embassy in Buenos Aires complained to Washington that the Argentine officers were "euphoric" over signals from high-ranking US officials, including Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 [24]
The Reagan administration whose first term began in 1981, however, asserted that Carter had weakened US diplomatic relationships with Cold War allies, and reversed the previous administration's official condemnation of the junta's human rights practices. The United States Presidency of Ronald Reagan, also known as the Reagan Administration, was a Republican administration headed by Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The re-establishment of diplomatic ties allowed for CIA collaboration with the Argentine intelligence service in training and arming the Nicaraguan Contras against the Sandinista government. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. The 601 Intelligence Battalion, for example, trained Contras at Lepaterique base, in Honduras. The Batallón de Inteligencia 601 ( 601st Intelligence Battalion) was a special military intelligence service of the Argentine Army active Lepaterique is a Municipality in the Honduran department of Francisco Morazán.
The "French Connection"
- Further information: Torture during the Algerian War
French journalist Marie-Monique Robin has found in the archives of the Quai d'Orsay, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, the original document proving that a 1959 agreement between Paris and Buenos Aires instaured a "permanent French military mission," formed of militaries who had fought in the Algerian War, and which was located in the offices of the chief of staff of the Argentine Armed Forces. Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist For the Cuban cigar brand see Quai d'Orsay (cigar brand. The Quai d'Orsay is a Quai in the VIIe arrondissement The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from It was continued until 1981, date of the election of socialist François Mitterrand. The Socialist Party ( Parti Socialiste, PS is the largest left-wing political party in France. François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand ( 26 October 1916 8 January 1996 served as President of France from 1981 to 1995 elected as representative of the Socialist [25] She showed how Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's government secretly collaborated with Videla's junta in Argentine and with Augusto Pinochet's regime in Chile. Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (born 2 February 1926 is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte (November [26]. The first Argentine officers, among whom Alcides Lopez Aufranc, went to Paris to assist to courses during two years at the Ecole de Guerre military school in 1957, two years before the Cuban Revolution and when no Argentine guerrilla existed. The École Militaire (Military School is a vast complex of buildings housing various military teaching facilities located in Paris, France, southeast of the The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, [25] "In practice, declared Robin to Página/12, the arrival of the French in Argentina led to a massive extension of intelligence services and of the use of torture as the primary weapon of the anti-subversive war in the concept of modern warfare. Página/12 a left-wing newspaper based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, founded on May 25, 1987 by journalist Jorge Lanata Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. " The anniquilation decrees signed by Isabel Peron had been inspired by French texts. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former During the Battle of Algiers, the police forces were put under the authority of the Army, and in particular of the paratroopers, who generalized interrogation sessions, systematically using torture and then disappearances. Paratroopers are Soldiers trained in Parachuting and generally operate as part of an airborne force. Interrogation or questioning is Interviewing as commonly employed by officers of the Police and Military. 30 000 persons disappeared in Algeria. Reynaldo Bignone, named President of the Argentinian junta in July 1982, declared in her film: "The March 1976 order of battle is a copy of the Algerian battle. Reynaldo Benito Antonio Bignone Ramayón (born January 21 1928) is a former Argentine general who served as President of the country from "[25] The same statements were issued by Generals Albano Harguindeguy, Videla's Interior Minister, and Diaz Bessone, former Minister of Planification and ideologue of the junta. Albano Eduardo Harguindeguy (born 1927 was a general of the Argentine Army, and the Interior minister of Argentina under dictator Jorge Rafael Videla [27] The French military would transmit to their Argentine counterparts the notion of "internal enemy" and the use of torture, death squads and "quadrillages".
Green deputies Noël Mamère, Martine Billard and Yves Cochet filed on 10 September 2003 a request for the constitution of a Parliamentary Commission on the "role of France in the support of military regimes in Latin America from 1973 to 1984" before the Foreign Affairs Commission of the National Assembly, presided by Edouard Balladur (UMP). Noël Mamère (born December 25, 1948 in Libourne, Gironde, France) is a French Politician of the Martine Billard (born Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine, 1952-10-07 is a French politician and Députée Martine Billard entered Yves Cochet is a French politician member of The Greens. He was minister in the government of Lionel Jospin. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Édouard Balladur (born 2 May 1929 is a French right-wing Politician. Apart of Le Monde, newspapers remained silent about this request. Le Monde (The World is a [28] However, UMP deputy Roland Blum, in charge of the Commission, refused to hear Marie-Monique Robin, and published in December 2003 a 12-page report qualified by Robin as the summum of bad faith. Roland Blum ( Les Pennes-Mirabeau, 12 July 1945- is a French conservative politician member of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP It claimed that no agreement had been signed, despite the agreement found by Robin in the Quai d'Orsay[29][30]
When Minister of Foreign Affairs Dominique de Villepin traveled to Chile in February 2004, he claimed that no cooperation between France and the military regimes had occurred. For the Cuban cigar brand see Quai d'Orsay (cigar brand. The Quai d'Orsay is a Quai in the VIIe arrondissement Dominique de Villepin (born Dominique Marie François René Galouzeau de Villepin (dɔminik də vilpɛ̃ &mdash) on 14 November 1953 in Rabat, Morocco [31]
Reporter Marie-Monique Robin thus declared to L'Humanité newspaper: "French have systematized a military technique in urban environment which would be copied and pasted to Latin American dictatorships. L'Humanité ("Humanity" formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF was founded in 1904 by Jean Jaurès, a leader of the "[32]. The methods employed during the 1957 Battle of Algiers were systematized and exported to the War School in Buenos Aires. [25] Roger Trinquier's famous book on counter-insurgency had a very strong influence in South America. Roger Trinquier (20 March 1908 - 11 January 1986 was a French Army officer and theorist of Counter-insurgency warfare See also Insurgency In the context of an occupation or a Civil war, counter-insurgency (abbreviated COIN is a military term for the combat She declared being shocked to learn that the DST French intelligence agency communicated to the DINA the name of the refugees who returned to Chile (Operation Retorno). The Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire (DST (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance was a directorate of the French National Police operating as a domestic All of these Chileans have been killed. "Of course, this puts in cause the French government, and Giscard d'Estaing, then President of the Republic. Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (born 2 February 1926 is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French I was very shocked by the duplicity of the French diplomatic position which, on one hand, received with open arms the political refugees, and, on the other hand, collaborated with the dictatorships. "[32]
Marie-Monique Robin also demonstrated ties between the French far right and Argentina since the 1930s, in particular through the Catholic fundamentalist organization Cité catholique, created by Jean Ousset, a former secretary of Charles Maurras, the founder of the royalist Action française movement, who was awarded the Francisque under Vichy (1940–4). Traditionalist Catholics are Roman Catholics, or people who identify as Roman Catholics who believe that there should be a restoration of many or all of the liturgical NPOV La Cité Catholique is a Traditionalist Catholic organisation created in 1946 by Jean Ousset, private secretary of Charles Maurras Jean Ousset ( 28 July 1914 &ndash 20 April 1994) was a French ideologist of National Catholicism born in Porto. __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 La Cité edited a review, Le Verbe, which influenced militaries during the Algerian War, notably by justifying the use of torture. At the end of the 1950s, the Cité catholique installed itself in Argentina and organized there cells in the Army. It greatly expanded itself during the government of General Juan Carlos Onganía, in particular in 1969. Juan Carlos Onganía Carballo (1914-1995 was a military President of Argentina from 29 June 1966 to 8 June 1970. [25] The key figure of the Cité catholique was priest Georges Grasset, who became Videla's personal confessor and had been the spiritual guide of the Organisation de l'armée secrète (OAS) pro-French Algeria terrorist movement founded in Franquist Spain. The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit This Catholic fundamentalist current in the Argentine Army explains, according to Robin, the importance and length of the French-Argentine cooperation. In Buenos Aires, Georges Grasset maintained links with Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of Society of St. Pius X in 1970 and excommunicated in 1988. Marcel-François Lefebvre ( November 29 1905 – March 25 1991) better known as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, was a French The Society of St Pius X ( SSPX) is an international Traditionalist Catholic organisation whose official Latin name is Fraternitas Sacerdotalis The Society of Pius-X has four monasteries in Argentina, the largest one in La Reja. There, a French priest declared to Marie-Monique Robin: "To save the soul of a Communist priest, one must kill him. " There, she met Luis Roldan, former Under Secretary of Cult under Carlos Menem, President of Argentina from 1989 to 1999, who was presented by Dominique Lagneau, the priest in charge of the monastery, as "Mr. Carlos Saúl Menem Akil (born July 2, 1930) was President of Argentina from July 8, 1989 to December 10, 1999 Cité catholique in Argentina". Bruno Genta and Juan Carlos Goyeneche represent this ideology. Jordán Bruno Genta, (1909-1974 was an Argentine writer and educator widely considered the ideologue of the Argentine extreme Right-wing. [25]
Antonio Caggiano, archbishop of Buenos Aires from 1959 to 1975 wrote in 1961 a prologue to Jean Ousset's Spanish version of Le Marxisme-léninisme. His Eminence Antonio Caggiano ( 30 January 1889 – 23 October 1979) was an Archbishop. Caggiano explained that "Marxism is the negation of Christ and his Church" and spoke of a Marxist conspiracy to take over the world, for which it was necessary to "prepare for the decisive battle". Together with President Arturo Frondizi (Radical Civic Union, UCR), he inaugurated the first course on counter-revolutionary warfare in the Higher Military College (Frondizi was eventually overthrown for being "tolerant of Communism"). Arturo Frondizi Ercoli ( October 28, 1908 - April 18, 1995) was the President of Argentina between 1 May The Radical Civic Union (in Spanish Unión Cívica Radical, UCR) is a Political party in Argentina.
By 1963, cadets at the (then infamously well-known) Navy Mechanics School started receiving counter-insurgency classes aided by the film The Battle of Algiers, which showed the methods used by the French Army in Algeria. The Navy Petty-Officers School of Mechanics (in Spanish Escuela de Suboficiales de Mecánica de la Armada, previously Escuela Superior de Mecánica de la Armada The Battle of Algiers (La battaglia di Algeri is a 1966 Black-and-white film by Gillo Pontecorvo based on events during the 1954-1962 Algerian Caggiano, the military chaplain at the time, introduced the film approvingly and added a religiously oriented commentary to it. On 2 July 1966, four days after President Arturo Umberto Illia was removed from office and replaced by the dictator Juan Carlos Onganía, Caggiano declared: "We are at a sort of dawn, in which, thanks to God, we all sense that the country is again headed for greatness. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. Arturo Umberto Illia ( Pergamino Buenos Aires, August 4, 1900 - Córdoba, January 18 1983) was President of Argentina Juan Carlos Onganía Carballo (1914-1995 was a military President of Argentina from 29 June 1966 to 8 June 1970. "
Argentine Admiral Luis Maria Mendia, who had theorized the practice of "death flights", testified in January 2007, before the Argentine judges, that a French intelligence "agent," Bertrand de Perseval, had participated in the abduction of the two French nuns, Léonie Duquet and Alice Domont. Luis María Mendía (1925- May 2007 was the Argentine Chief of Naval Operations in 1976-77 with the rank of Vice-admiral. Leonie Duquet (1916 – 1977 was a French nun who was killed in the Dirty War that took place during the military regime of Argentine President Perseval, who lives today in Thailand, denied any links with the abduction, but did admit being a former member of the OAS, and having escaped for Argentina after the March 1962 Evian Accords putting an end to the Algerian War (1954-62). The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from Referring to Marie Monique Robin's film documentary titled The Death Squads — the French School (Les escadrons de la mort – l'école française), Luis Maria Mendia asked before the Argentine Court that former French president, Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, former French premier Pierre Messmer, former French embassador to Buenos Aires Françoise de la Gosse, and all officials in place in the French embassy in Buenos Aires between 1976 and 1983 be convoked before the court. Valéry Marie René Georges Giscard d'Estaing (born 2 February 1926 is a French centre - right politician who was President of the French Pierre Joseph Auguste Messmer (20 March 1916 29 August 2007 was a French Gaullist politician [33] Besides this "French connection," he has also charged former head of state Isabel Peron and former ministers Carlos Ruckauf and Antonio Cafiero, whom had signed the "anti-subversion decrees" before Videla's 1976 coup d'état. María Estela Martínez Cartas de Perón (born February 4, 1931) better known as Isabel Martínez de Perón or Isabel Perón, is a former Carlos Federico Ruckauf (born Ramos Mejía 1944) is a Peronist politician in Argentina, member of the Justicialist Party. Antonio Francisco Cafiero (born 12 September 1922 in Buenos Aires) is an Argentine Justicialist Party politician According to ESMA survivor Graciela Dalo, this is another tactic which pretends that these crimes were legitimate as the 1987 Obediencia Debida Act claimed them to be and that they also obeyed to Isabel Peron's "anti-subversion decrees" (which, if true, would give them a formal appearance of legality, despite torture being forbidden by the Argentine Constitution)[34] Alfredo Astiz also referred before the courts to the "French connexion". The Navy Petty-Officers School of Mechanics (in Spanish Escuela de Suboficiales de Mecánica de la Armada, previously Escuela Superior de Mecánica de la Armada Alfredo Ignacio Astiz (born 8 November 1951) was a Captain and Intelligence officer in the Argentine Navy during the dictatorial rule of [35]
When Minister of Foreign Affairs Dominique de Villepin traveled to Chile in February 2004, he claimed that no cooperation between France and the military regimes had occurred. Dominique de Villepin (born Dominique Marie François René Galouzeau de Villepin (dɔminik də vilpɛ̃ &mdash) on 14 November 1953 in Rabat, Morocco [31]
Truth commission and trials
The junta relinquished power in 1983. After democratic elections, president elect Raúl Alfonsín created the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP) in December 1983, led by writer Ernesto Sábato, to collect evidence about the Dirty War crimes. Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín Foulkes (born 13 March 1927 in Chascomús) is an Argentine politician who was the President of Argentina The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish es Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas, CONADEP was an Argentine organization Ernesto Sabato (born June 24, 1911) is an Argentine writer of Italian and Arbëreshë (Italian Albanian descent The gruesome details, including documentation of the disappearance of nearly 9,000 people, shocked the world. Jorge Rafael Videla, head of the junta, was among the generals convicted of human rights crimes, including forced disappearances, torture, murders and kidnappings. Jorge Rafael Videla Redondo (born August 21, 1925 in Mercedes Buenos Aires) was the dictator and President of Argentina from 1976 to 1981 President Alfonsín ordered that the nine members of the military junta be judicially charged, during the 1983 Trial of the Juntas, together with guerrilla leaders Mario Firmenich, Fernando Vaca Narvaja, Rodolfo Galimberti, Roberto Perdía, and Enrique Gorriarán Merlo. The Trial of the Juntas (Spanish Juicio a las Juntas) was the judicial trial of the members of the de facto military government that ruled Argentina Enrique Haroldo Gorriarán Merlo ( 18 October 1941 – 22 September 2006) was an Argentine Some claimed that Alfonsín's government was positing the "theory of the two demons," morally equating violent political subversion with state terrorism. The theory of the two Demons ( Teoría de los dos demonios) is a Rhetorical device used in Argentine political discourse to disqualify arguments State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments
In the Prologue to the Nunca Más report ("Never Again"), Ernesto Sábato wrote:
"From the moment of their abduction, the victims lost all rights. Deprived of all communication with the outside world, held in unknown places, subjected to barbaric tortures, kept ignorant of their immediate or ultimate fate, they risked being either thrown into a river or the sea, weighted down with blocks of cement, or burned to ashes. They were not mere objects, however, and still possessed all the human attributes: they could feel pain, could remember a mother, child or spouse, could feel infinite shame at being raped in public. . . "[20]
In 1985, Videla was sentenced to life imprisonment at the military prison of Magdalena. However, on 29 December 1990, President Carlos Menem pardoned Videla and other convicted generals. Events 1170 - Thomas Becket: Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Carlos Saúl Menem Akil (born July 2, 1930) was President of Argentina from July 8, 1989 to December 10, 1999 A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it In 1998, Videla received a prison sentence for his role in the kidnapping of eleven children during the regime and for the forgery of the children's identity documents (the "stolen babies", kidnapped from the parents arrested, and raised by military families). The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo (Asociación Madres de Plaza de Mayo is an association of Argentine Mothers whose children " disappeared quot during
Some viewed the pardons as a pragmatic decision of national reconciliation that sought to please the military and thus prevent further uprisings. Others condemned it as unconstitutional, noting that the constitutionally acknowledged right of the president to pardon does not extend to those who have not yet been convicted — which was the situation in the case of some military officials. Others yet consider that this presidential privilege is inappropriate for modern times, a relic of monarchic rule that should be abolished.
Ironically, dictator Videla was de facto incapable of leaving his house, since every time he went out in public he risked insults or assault. At one time, the street was painted with enormous arrows pointing to his house, and the words: 30,000 disappeared, assassin on the loose.
Foreign governments whose citizens were victims of the Dirty War (which included citizens of Czechoslovakia,[36] Italy,[37] Sweden,[38] Finland,[39] Germany,[40] the United States,[41] the United Kingdom, [42] Paraguay,[43] Bolivia,[44] Spain,[45] Chile[45] Uruguay, [45] Peru, [46] and several other nations) are pressing individual cases against the former military regime. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. France has sought the extradition of Captain Alfredo Astiz for the kidnapping and murder of its nationals, among them nuns Leonie Duquet and Alice Domon. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Alfredo Ignacio Astiz (born 8 November 1951) was a Captain and Intelligence officer in the Argentine Navy during the dictatorial rule of Leonie Duquet (1916 – 1977 was a French nun who was killed in the Dirty War that took place during the military regime of Argentine President Alice Domon, Caty (Birth 1937 in Charquemont, Doubs, France; Missing on December 17 or 18 1977 near Santa Teresita by the Argentine Adolfo Scilingo, a former Argentine naval officer, was convicted in Spain, on 19 April 2005, to 640 years on charges of crimes against humanity. Adolfo Scilingo (born 1947 is a former Argentine naval officer who is currently serving 30 years (the legally applied limit although he was sentenced to 640 years Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In Public international law, a crime against humanity is an act of Persecution or any large scale atrocities against a body of people and is the highest level of
At the end of 2005, during the presidency of Néstor Kirchner, the Ley de Punto Final and Ley de Obediencia Debida were declared void by congress, but those already pardoned cannot be prosecuted again for the same crimes. Néstor Carlos Kirchner Ostoić (born February 25, 1950) was the President of Argentina from May 25, 2003 until December Ley de Punto Final (Spanish roughly translated Full Stop Law) was a law passed by the National Congress of Argentina after the end of the military Ley de Obediencia Debida (Spanish Law of Due Obedience) was a law passed by the National Congress of Argentina after the end of the military Since 2006, 24 March is a public holiday in Argentina, the Day of Memory for Truth and Justice; that year, on the 30th anniversary of the coup, a multitude filled the streets calling to remember what happened during the military government, and pray it never to happen again. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland National public Holidays of Argentina. Other Observances Teacher's Day ( Día del Maestro) on September The Day of Memory for Truth and Justice (in Spanish Día de la Memoria por la Verdad y la Justicia) is a Public holiday in Argentina, commemorating
In 2006, the first trials since the repeal of the "Pardon Laws" began. Miguel Etchecolatz, a police officer in the 1970s, was the first to face trial for illegal detention, torture and homicide. Miguel Osvaldo Etchecolatz (born 1929 was a senior Argentine Police officer, who worked in the Buenos Aires Provincial Police during the first years of
Furthermore, several former Ford Argentine workers have deposed a suit against the U. Ford Motor Company is an American Multinational corporation and the world's fourth largest automaker based on Worldwide vehicle sales, following S. -based company, alleging that the local managers worked with the security forces to detain union members on the premises and torture them. The civil suit against Ford Motor Company and Ford Argentina also calls for four former company executives and a retired military officer to be questioned. [47] According to Pedro Norberto Troiani, one of the plaintiffs, 25 employees were detained in this plant located 40 miles (60 km) from Buenos Aires. Ford has been accused since 1998 of involvement in state repression, but has denied the claims. According to several documents, army personnel arrived at the plant on the day of the military coup, 24 March 1976, and disappearances immediately started. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In October 2002, DaimlerChrysler had also announced an external investigation into the claims, made by Amnesty International, that 14 union activists had been handed over to Argentina's military during the Dirty War. Daimler AG ( (formerly DaimlerChrysler AG) is a German car corporation (not to be confused with the British car-maker Daimler Motor Company) and Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to [48]
There has been a long-running debate in Argentina over the issue of amnesty for officials of the Dirty War. Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to A form of amnesty was controversially adopted as law after the reinstatement of democratic rule and the trials of the top military leaders of the juntas in 1984, during Raúl Alfonsín's presidency (1983–1989), but it has remained unpopular. Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín Foulkes (born 13 March 1927 in Chascomús) is an Argentine politician who was the President of Argentina In June 2005, the Supreme Court overturned the amnesty laws, called Ley de Punto Final ("Full Stop Law") and of Ley de Obediencia Debida ("Law of Due Obedience"), opening the door for prosecutions of former junta officials. The Supreme Court of Argentina (in Spanish, Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación) is the highest Court of Law of the Argentine Ley de Punto Final (Spanish roughly translated Full Stop Law) was a law passed by the National Congress of Argentina after the end of the military A full stop or period (sometimes stop, full point, decimal point, or dot) is the Punctuation mark commonly placed at the Ley de Obediencia Debida (Spanish Law of Due Obedience) was a law passed by the National Congress of Argentina after the end of the military [49] The Punto Final law had been voted on 24 December 1986, under Alfonsín's presidency, and extinguished any charges for human rights violations for all acts preceding 12 December 1983. Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar) Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) [50]
Continuing controversies
In 2001, Jorge Zorreguieta, a civilian who was former Undersecretary of Agriculture in the Videla regime, became the focus of attention when his daughter Máxima became engaged to the Crown Prince of the Netherlands. Princess Máxima of the Netherlands ( Née Máxima Zorreguieta; born May 17, 1971) is the spouse of Willem-Alexander Prince of Orange Willem-Alexander Prince of Orange (in Dutch: Prins van Oranje The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The significance of his potential connection to the Dutch Royal Family, and his possible presence at a royal wedding was hotly debated for several months. The Netherlands has been an independent Monarchy since 16 March 1815, and has been governed by members of the House of Orange-Nassau Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he was unaware of the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister; however, that would have been unlikely for a person in such a powerful position in the government. Formal charges have never been brought against him, but he was banned from attending the royal wedding which was held in Amsterdam on 2 February 2002. Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west Events 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar.
Casualty estimates
According to the Nunca Más report issued by the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP) in 1984, about 9,000 people were "disappeared" between 1976 and 1983. The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (Spanish es Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas, CONADEP was an Argentine organization An estimate by the Argentine security services in mid-July 1978, which started counting victims in 1975, gave the figure of 22,000 persons — this document was first published by John Dinges in 2004. John Dinges was special correspondent for Time, Washington Post and ABC Radio in Chile. [51] Estimates by human rights organizations estimate up to 30,000. By comparison, Argentine security forces cite 775 deaths of their own. Between 1969 and 1979 left-wing guerrillas accounted for 3,249 kidnappings and murders. CONADEP also recorded 458 assassinations (attributed to the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance) and about 600 forced disappearances during the period of democratic rule between 1973 and 1976. The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance ( Alianza Anticomunista Argentina, usually known as Triple A or AAA was a Far-right Death squad active in [52][6]
Participation of the Catholic Church
On 15 April 2005, a human rights lawyer filed a criminal complaint against Argentine cardinal Jorge Bergoglio, accusing him of conspiring with the junta in 1976 to kidnap two Jesuit priests. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official usually a bishop, of the Catholic Church. Jorge Mario Bergoglio, SJ (born December 17, 1936) is an Argentine Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order So far, no hard evidence has been presented linking the cardinal to this crime. It is known that the cardinal was the superior figure in the Society of Jesus of Argentina during 1976 and had asked the two priests to leave their pastoral work following conflict within the Society over how to respond to the new military dictatorship, with some priests advocating a violent overthrow. Bergoglio's spokesman has flatly denied the allegations. [2]
It should be noted that Bergoglio was a key figure in securing the priests' release following their abduction by an Argentine navy squad, as he pressured Navy Chief of Staff Emilio Eduardo Massera.
The complaint was filed as the Roman Catholic Conclave prepared to convene to select a new pope, likely as a means of protesting Bergoglio's candidacy. A papal conclave is a meeting of the College of Cardinals to elect the Pope (or Bishop of Rome) who is considered by Catholics to be the Successor The papacy went to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger. Pope Benedict XVI ( Latin: Benedictus PP XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI; born Joseph Alois Ratzinger
Furthermore, the former chaplain of the Buenos Aires Province Police while it was under the command of General Ramón Camps, Christian von Wernich, was first accused of collaborating in the torture of political prisoners during the Trial of the Juntas in 1985 [53]. A chaplain is typically a Priest, Pastor, ordained Deacon, Rabbi, Imam or other member of the Clergy serving a group of Police Ranks Until January 2005 the Buenos Aires Police used the same rank system as employed by the Federal Police Ramón Juan Camps (? – 1994 was an Argentine general and the head of the Buenos Aires Provincial Police during the military Dictatorship known as the Christian Federico von Wernich (born 27 May 1938 in Concordia, Entre Ríos Province) is an Argentine Roman Catholic A judge ordered again his arrest in 2003, and he was indicted on charges of co-authorship of homicide, illegal restraints and acts of torture (including the kidnapping of Jacobo Timerman, the editor of La Opinión). Jacobo Timerman ( January 6, 1923 – November 11, 1999) was a publisher journalist and author La Opinión was an Argentine Newspaper, founded by the journalist Jacobo Timerman in 1971. Surviving victims declared that von Wernich questioned them under torture, subjected them to fake executions, and, under the guise of counseling, urged them to confess. [54] [55] On 9 October 2007, the court found him guilty of complicity in seven homicides, 42 kidnappings, and 32 instances of torture, and sentenced him to life imprisonment. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. [56] [57]
Notes
- ^ PBS News Hour, 16 Oct. 1997, et al[1]
- ^ a b La Nación, 19 September 2006. La Nación is an Argentine daily Newspaper. It is on the right of the political spectrum with the centrist Clarín being its main Condenaron a Etchecolatz a reclusión perpetua.
- ^ a b Julio Strassera's prosecution during the 1985 Trial of the Juntas (Juicio a las Juntas Militares)
- ^ Desaparecidos. The Trial of the Juntas (Spanish Juicio a las Juntas) was the judicial trial of the members of the de facto military government that ruled Argentina org, documents of the Trial of the Juntas. El Estado de necesidad.
- ^ Hugo Moreno, Le désastre argentin. Péronisme, politique et violence sociale (1930–2001), Editions Syllepses, Paris, 2005, p. 109 (French)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Argenpress, 10 April 2006. Represión en Argentina y memoria larga.
- ^ Cronica de La Subversion en La Argentina (Revised & Updated, 1983).
- ^ Spanish: el commando general del Ejército procederá a ejecutar todas las operaciones militares que sean necesarias a efectos de neutralizar o aniquilar el accionar de los elementos subversivos que actúan en la provincia de Tucumán
- ^ Decree No. 261/75. NuncaMas. org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
- ^ Facts on File, p. 126, 1975
- ^ Decree No. 2770/75. NuncaMas. org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
- ^ Decree No. 2771/75. NuncaMas. org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
- ^ Decree No. 2772/75. NuncaMas. org, Decretos de aniquilamiento.
- ^ a b c Automotores Orletti el taller asesino del Cóndor, Juventud Rebelde, 3 January 2006 (mirrored on El Correo. Juventud Rebelde is a Cuban Newspaper of the Unión de Jóvenes Comunistas (Union of Young Communists eu. org (Spanish)/(French)
- ^ Marie-Monique Robin, 2004. Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist Escadrons de la mort, l'école française. 453 pages. La Découverte ISBN 2707141631; Spanish transl. , 2005: Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron, de Marie-Monique Robin. 539 pages. Sudamericana. ISBN 950072684X
- ^ Martín Almada, "Paraguay: The Forgotten Prison, the Exiled Country"
- ^ Stella Calloni. Martín Almada (born 30 January 1937) is a lawyer writer and educationalist from Paraguay. Los Archivos del Horror del Operativo Cóndor. freely available on Equipo Nizkor's website, here (Spanish)
- ^ Visit by Guillermo Novo Sampol to Chile in 1976, 1 and 2, on the National Security Archive website
- ^ Terra Actualidad, 18 March 2006. See Nizkor for other organizations with a similar name ---- Equipo Nizkor (from the Hebrew נִזְכּוֹר "we will remember" is a The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in Ramón Camps: el peor de todos.
- ^ a b The Victims: Abducted, Tortured, Vanished (list of victims) (English)/(Spanish)
- ^ Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo's website (English)
- ^ Hearing of Stefano Delle Chiaie on 22 July 1997 before the Italian Parliamentary Commission on Terrorism headed by senator Giovanni Pellegrino (Italian)
- ^ Los secretos de la guerra sucia continental de la dictadura, El Clarin, March 24, 2006 (Spanish)
- ^ a b Argentine Military Believed U.S. Gave Go-Ahead for Dirty War, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. Stefano Delle Chiaie (born 13 September 1936 in Caserta) is a Neofascist Italian activist (founder of ''Avanguardia Nazionale'' and Giovanni Pellegrino (born June 4, 1939) is an Italian politician currently the president of the Province of Lecce in Apulia. Clarín is a major Newspaper in Argentina, founded by Roberto Noble on August 28 1945. The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in 73 — Part II, CIA classified documents released in 2002.
- ^ a b c d e f Argentine – Escadrons de la mort : l’école française, interview with Marie-Monique Robin published by RISAL, October 22, 2004 available in French & Spanish (“Los métodos de Argel se aplicaron aquí”, Página/12, October 13, 2004
- ^ Conclusion of Marie-Monique Robin's Escadrons de la mort, l'école française (French)
- ^ Torture : l’école française, Marie-Monique Robin, interview first published by Rouge, September 2005 (French)
- ^ MM. Giscard d'Estaing et Messmer pourraient être entendus sur l'aide aux dictatures sud-américaines, Le Monde, 25 September 2003 (French)
- ^ « Série B. Página/12 a left-wing newspaper based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, founded on May 25, 1987 by journalist Jorge Lanata Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist Le Monde (The World is a Amérique 1952–1963. Sous-série : Argentine, n° 74. Cotes : 18. 6. 1. mars 52-août 63 ».
- ^ Rapport Fait Au Nom de La Commission des Affaires Étrangères Sur La Proposition de Résolution (n° 1060), tendant à la création d'une commission d'enquête sur le rôle de la France dans le soutien aux régimes militaires d'Amérique latine entre 1973 et 1984, par M. Roland BLUM, French National Assembly (French)
- ^ a b Argentine : M. de Villepin défend les firmes françaises, Le Monde, February 5, 2003 (French)
- ^ a b L’exportation de la torture, interview with Marie-Monique Robin in L'Humanité, 30 August 2003 (French)
- ^ Disparitions : un ancien agent français mis en cause, Le Figaro, 6 February 2007 (French)
- ^ “Impartí órdenes que fueron cumplidas”, Página/12, February 2, 2007 (Spanish)
- ^ Astiz llevó sus chicanas a los tribunales, Página/12, January 25, 2007 (Spanish)
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ Jorge Acosta and the murder of Dagmar Hagelin
- ^ Desaparacidos
- ^ Argentina rejects 'Dirty War' extradition requests
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ Desparacidos
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ a b c Desaparecidos
- ^ Desaparecidos
- ^ Ford sued over Argentine abuses, BBC News, 24 February 2006
- ^ Argentina checks Ford's 'military ties', BBC News, 6 November 2002
- ^ Law 23492 (Ley de Punto Final). The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) Le Monde (The World is a Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist L'Humanité ("Humanity" formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF was founded in 1904 by Jean Jaurès, a leader of the Le Figaro is one of the leading French morning daily Newspapers Its editorial line is conservative and has generally been supportive of Página/12 a left-wing newspaper based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, founded on May 25, 1987 by journalist Jorge Lanata Página/12 a left-wing newspaper based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, founded on May 25, 1987 by journalist Jorge Lanata
- ^ BBC News, 15 June 2005. Argentine amnesty laws scrapped.
- ^ Mid-July 1978 - (Argentine Military Intelligence Estimates 22,000 people Dead or Disappeared, page A-8), National Security Archive
- ^ L'ancienne présidente argentine Isabel Peron arrêtée à Madrid, à la demande de Buenos Aires, Le Monde, January 13, 2007 (French)
- ^ Nuncamas. The National Security Archive is a 501(c(3 non-governmental non-profit research and archival institution located within The George Washington University in Le Monde (The World is a org. Testimony of Cristian Federico von Wernich during the Trial of the Juntas (8 May 1985). (Spanish)
- ^ The Catholic Voice, 9 January 2006. Argentine priest arraigned for human rights abuses.
- ^ La Capital (Rosario), 8 March 2006. Von Wernich seguirá en prisión y será sometido a juicio oral. (Spanish)
- ^ BBC News, 10 September 2007. 'Dirty War' priest gets life term.
- ^ El Clarín, 9 October 2007. Reclusión perpetua para Von Wernich. (Spanish)
See also
- Amnesty law
- Command responsibility
- History of Argentina
- Military of Argentina
- December 1976 Massacre of Margarita Belén
- Night of the Pencils
- Operation Charly
- Operation Condor
- Operation Gladio
- Operativo Independencia
- National Reorganization Process
- Theory of the two demons
- Strategy of tension
- 1973 Ezeiza massacre
- State terrorism
- Jorge Eduardo Acosta
- Films depicting Latin American military dictatorships
- Maria Eugenia Sampallo
External links
- Proyecto Desaparecidos/Project Disappeared
- [3] War Diary of Brigadier-General Acdel Vilas
- 1984 Report of the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons
- Old Ideas in New Discourses: "The War Against Terrorism" and Collective Memory in Uruguay and Argentina
- Article from Consortium
- Information from the Vanished Gallery
- (Spanish) 24 de marzo — Del horror a la esperanza — Official website of the Memorial Day, with timeline and resources
- Los Escuadrones De La Muerte/ the Death Squadron / Escadrons de la mort, l'école française, by Marie-Monique Robin (film documentary)
Books
- The Ministry of Special Cases, by Nathan Englander (2007), novel. An amnesty law is any law that retroactively exempts a select group of people usually military leaders and government leaders from criminal liability for crimes committed Command responsibility, sometimes referred to as the Yamashita standard or the Medina standard, is the doctrine of hierarchical accountability in cases of This article is about the History of Argentina. See also History of South America, History of Latin America, History of the Americas, and The Massacre of Margarita Belén was an episode of the 1970s' " Dirty War " in Argentina. For the film see Night of the Pencils (film (1986 The Night of the Pencils (in Spanish La Noche de los Lápices) was a Operation Charly ( Spanish: " Operación Charly " was the code-name of the Covert operation headed by the Argentine military, with the For other uses of Operation Condor please see Operation Condor (disambiguation Operation Condor (Operación Cóndor Operação Condor was a campaign Gladio ( Italian, from Latin Gladius, meaning Sword) is a code name denoting the clandestine NATO " Stay-behind Operativo Independencia ( Spanish for "Operation Independence" was the code-name of the Argentine military operation in the Tucumán Province, The National Reorganization Process (in Spanish, Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, often simply El Proceso) was the name used by its leaders The theory of the two Demons ( Teoría de los dos demonios) is a Rhetorical device used in Argentine political discourse to disqualify arguments A strategy of tension (strategia della tensione is an alleged way used by world powers to divide manipulate and control Public opinion using Fear, Propaganda The Ezeiza massacre took place on June 20, 1973 near the Ezeiza International Airport in Buenos Aires, Argentina. State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments Jorge Eduardo Acosta (27 May 1941 alias " el Tigre " ("The Tiger" was an Argentine captain of Corvette, head of the Work Group ( Grupo de This is a list of movies that in one way or another are closely related to the military dictatorships in Latin America that appeared during the context of the Cold War. Maria Eugenia Sampallo (born on an unknown date in 1978 is an Argentinian known for being the first person to take a couple who illegally adopted her as a baby to court for Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist
- La Historia Official (English: The Official Story), by Nicolás Márquez (2006), revisionist critique
- Guerrillas and Generals: The Dirty War in Argentina, by Paul H. Lewis (2001).
- God's Assassins: State Terrorism in Argentina in the 1970s by M. Patricia Marchak (1999).
- A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture, by Marguerite Feitlowitz (1999).
- Una sola muerte numerosa (English: A Single, Numberless Death), by Nora Strejilevich (1997).
- The Flight: Confessions of an Argentine Dirty Warrior, by Horacio Verbitsky (1996). Horacio Verbitksy (born 1942 in Buenos Aires) is a prominent Argentine investigative journalist and author
- Argentina's Lost Patrol: Armed Struggle, 1969–1979, by María José Moyano (1995).
- Dossier Secreto: Argentina's Desaparecidos and the Myth of the "Dirty War", by Martin Edwin Anderson (1993).
- Argentina's "Dirty War": An Intellectual Biography, by Donald C. Hodges (1991).
- Behind the Disappearances: Argentina's Dirty War Against Human Rights and the United Nations, by Iain Guest (1990).
- The Little School: Tales of Disappearance & Survival in Argentina, by Alicia Partnoy (1989).
- Argentina, 1943–1987: The National Revolution and Resistance, by Donald C. Hodges (1988).
- Soldiers of Perón: Argentina's Montoneros, by Richard Gillespie (1982).
- Guerrilla warfare in Argentina and Colombia, 1974–1982, by Bynum E. Weathers, Jr. (1982).
- Prisoner without a Name, Cell without a Number, by Jacobo Timerman (1981).
- Guerrilla politics in Argentina, by Kenneth F. Johnson (1975).
Film
- Cautiva (2003). Directed by Gaston Biraben.
- Imagining Argentina (2003). Imagining Argentina is a 2003 Film directed and written by Christopher Hampton. Directed by Christopher Hampton. Christopher James Hampton CBE (born January 26, 1946) is an Academy Award winning British playwright screen writer and film director
- The Official Story (1985). The Official Story ( Spanish: es La historia oficial) ( 1985) is a Argentine Drama film directed by Directed by Luis Puenzo. Luis Adalberto Puezo (born February 19, 1946 in Buenos Aires, Argentina) is a Film director, producer and Screenplay
- The Disappeared (2007). Directed by Peter Sanders.
- Los Escuadrones De La Muerte (the Death Squadron, Escadrons de la mort), l'école française, by Marie-Monique Robin (book and film, ISBN 950072684X). Marie-Monique Robin (born 1960 is an award-winning French journalist
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