A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog^[1]) is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. Banter redirects here for the Radio 4 panel show see Banter (radio show A conversation is Communication by two or more people or by one's self An entity is something that has a distinct separate Existence, though it need not be a material existence The etymological origins of the word (in Greek διά("diá," through) and λόγος ("logos," word, speech) creating concepts such as flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix διά-("diá-," through) and the prefix δι-("di-," two) leading to the erroneous assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

Contents 1 Literary and philosophical genre 1.1 Antiquity and the middle ages 1.2 The modern period to the present 2 Platonic dialogues 3 Egalitarian dialogue 4 Philosophical, theological, and social concept 5 Obstacles 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

Literary and philosophical genre

When reported or imitated in writing, "dialogue" labels a form of literature used by Greeks and Indians for purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction. Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice This form has scarcely been modified since the days of its birth.

A literary dialogue comprises a little drama without opinions. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance. It has long served writers who have something to censure or to impart, but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than indicate. A pulpit (from Latin pulpitum "scaffold" "platform" "stage" is a small elevated platform where a member of the clergy stands The dialogue expresses and notes down the undulations of human thought so spontaneously that it almost escapes analysis. Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Commonly, records of the alleged actual words spoken by living or imaginary people and it appears in a dialogued format. One branch of this form of expressive documentation, the drama, depends upon dialogue almost exclusively. Yet, in its technical sense, the word 'dialogue' describes what the Greek philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the extreme refinement of an art. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual

Antiquity and the middle ages

In the east, the genre dates back to the Sumerian dialogues and disputations (preserved in copies from the early second millennium b. c. e. ), as well as Rigvedic dialogue hymns and the Indian epic Mahabharata, while in the west, literary historians commonly suppose that Plato (c. The Rigveda contains a number of dialogue hymns ( saṃvāda-sūkta s hymns that are in the form of Dialogues representing the earliest surviving Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. 427 BC - c. Events By place Greece Sparta 's King Archidamus II is succeeded by his son Agis II. 347 BC) introduced the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form: they point to his earliest experiment with the genre in the Laches. Events By Place Greece In the wake of the Macedonian victory at Olynthus, Athens seeks to make peace with Macedonia The Platonic dialogue, however, had its foundations in the mime, which the Sicilian poets Sophron and Epicharmus had cultivated half a century earlier. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Sophron, of Syracuse, writer of mimes flourished about 430 BC Epicharmus is considered to have lived within the hundred year period between c The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, have not survived, but scholars imagine them as little plays usually presented with only two performers. The Mimes of Herodas give us some idea of their scope. Herodas (Greek) or Herondas (the name is spelt differently in the few places where he is mentioned was a Greek Poet and the author of short humorous

Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. In Logic, an argument is a Set of one or more Declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the Premises along He must have begun this about the year 405 BC, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection, especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. Events By place Greece After their victory in the Battle of Arginusae over the Spartans the Athenian fleet follows Events By place Greece February 15 — The Greek Philosopher Socrates is sentenced to death by Athenian SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. All his philosophical writings, except the Apology, use this form. As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his favorite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendor, and to this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient.

Following Plato, the dialogue became one major literary genre in antiquity, and there are several examples both in Latin and Greek. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium, Aristotle is said to have written several philosophical dialogues in Plato's style (none of which have survived), and later most of the Hellenistic schools had their own dialogue. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Xenophon 's Symposium (Συμπόσιον records the discussion of Socrates and company at a dinner given by Callias for his Cicero wrote some very important works in this genre, such as On the Orator (De Oratore), On the Republic (De Re Publica), and the lost Hortensius (the latter cited by Augustine in the Confessions as the work which instilled in him his lifelong love of philosophy). Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Confessions ( Latin: Confessiones) is the name of an Autobiographical work consisting of 13 books by St

In the 2nd century AD. The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his ironic dialogues Of the Gods, Of the Dead, Of Love and Of the Courtesans. Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανός ὁ Σαμοσατεύς Lucianus c In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes of modern life. Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief

The dialogue was frequently used by early Christian writers, such as Justin, Origen and Augustine, and a particularly notable dialogue from late antiquity is Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Justin may refer to Justin (name, a common given name Justin Martyr, early Christian apologist Justin (historian Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Consolation of Philosophy ( Consolatio Philosophiae) is a philosophical work by Boethius, written in about the year AD 524. The genre survived up through the early scholastic period, with Peter Abelard composing his Dialogue with a Jew, a Christian and a Philosopher in the early 12th century AD, but later, in the wake of the powerful influence of writings by Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas, the scholastic tradition adopted the more formal and concise genre of the summa, which largely superseded the dialogue as philosophical format. Saint Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (San Bonaventura (1221 &ndash July 15, 1274) born John of Fidanza (Giovanni di Fidanza was the eighth Minister

The modern period to the present

Two French writers of eminence borrowed the title of Lucian’s most famous collection; both Fontenelle (1683) and Fénelon (1712) prepared Dialogues des morts ("Dialogues of the Dead"). François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, more commonly known as François Fénelon ( August 6 1651 &ndash January 7 1715) was a Year 1712 ( MDCCXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, thus contributing to the genre's revival in philosophic circles. "Malebranche" redirects here For the fictional demons see Malebolge. In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his Platonic treatise, Three Dialogs between Hylas and Philonous. George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher. Year 1713 ( MDCCXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Landor’s Imaginary Conversations (1821-1828) formed the most famous English example of dialogue in the 19th century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps also claim attention and make himself more popular. Walter Savage Landor ( 30 January 1775 – 17 September 1864) was an English Writer and Poet. Imaginary Conversations is the best-known prose work of the English poet and author Walter Savage Landor. Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Sir Arthur Helps ( July 10, 1813 &ndash March 7, 1875) English writer and dean of the Privy Council, youngest son of Thomas Helps

In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. Christoph Martin Wieland ( September 5, 1733 &ndash January 20, 1813) was a German Poet and writer Year 1780 ( MDCCLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Juan de Valdés (c 1509-1541 was Spanish religious writer younger of twin sons of Fernando de Valdés hereditary regidor of Cuenca in Castile Vincenzo Carducci (in Spanish, sometimes Vicencio or Vicente Carducho; 1568&ndash1638 was an Italian painter Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Plato's model, include Torquato Tasso (1586), Galileo (1632), Galiani (1770), Leopardi (1825), and a host of others. Torquato Tasso ( 11 March 1544 &ndash 25 April 1595) was an Italian Poet of the 16th century best known for his poem Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Ferdinando Galiani ( December 2, 1728 - October 30, 1787) was an Italian Economist. Year 1770 ( MDCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Friday Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi Conte ( June 29, 1798 &ndash June 14, 1837) was an Italian Poet, Year 1825 ( MDCCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common

More recently, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. The inventions of "Gyp", of Henri Lavedan, and of others, tell a mundane anecdote wittily and maliciously in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets. Henri Léon Emile Lavedan ( 9 April 1859 - 30 September 1940) French Dramatist and Man of letters, was born For other uses see Anecdota. For a comparison of anecdote with other kinds of stories see Myth legend fairy tale and fable. This kind of dialogue also appeared in English, exemplified by Anstey Guthrie, but these dialogues seem to have found less of a popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. Thomas Anstey Guthrie ( 8 August 1856 - March 10, 1934) was an English novelist and journalist who wrote his comic novels under the Pseudonym

The Platonic dialogue, as a distinct genre which features Socrates as a speaker and one or more interlocutors discussing some philosophical question, experienced something of a rebirth in the 20th century. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Authors who have recently employed it include George Santayana, in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo (1926, 2nd ed. George Santayana ( December 16, 1863, Madrid &ndash September 26, 1952, Rome) was a Philosopher, Essayist 1948; this work also includes such historical figures as Alcibiades, Aristippus, Avicenna, Democritus, and Dionysius the Younger as speakers), and Iris Murdoch, who included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos: Two Platonic Dialogues (1986), but featured a young Plato himself as well. Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades Aristippus (Ἀρίστιππος of Cyrene, (c 435-c 356 BCE was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Democritus ( Greek:) was a pre-Socratic Greek Materialist Philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace ca Dionysius the Younger or Dionysius II (ca 397 BC – 343 BC ruled Syracuse, Sicily from 367 BC to 357 BC and again from 346 BC to 344 BC Dame Jean Iris Murdoch DBE ( 15 July 1919 &ndash 8 February 1999) was a Dublin -born writer and philosopher

The philosophic dialogue, with or without Socrates as a character, continues to be used on occasion by philosophers when attempting to write engaging, literary works of philosophy which attempt to capture the subtle nuance and lively give-and-take of discourse as it actually takes place in intellectual conversation.

Compare: Closet drama

Platonic dialogues

The philosopher Plato wrote a series of dialogues, mostly between Socrates and some other person. A closet drama is a play that is not intended to be performed onstage but read by a solitary reader or sometimes out loud in a small group perhaps in a small room called Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. In all these dialogues there is an explicit or an implicit disagreement, and the purpose of these dialogues is to resolve the disagreement. The typical way is for Socrates to probe his partner for further beliefs until a contradiction is reached with the disputed belief or hypothesis by implication. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible In this way the interlocutor is made to see the impossibility of his hypothesis, and then tries some other hypothesis, which is again subject to the same scrutiny. Most of these dialogues break off without a final resolution—as in real life.

Egalitarian dialogue

Main article: Egalitarian dialogue

Egalitarian dialogue is a form of discussion that takes place when different contributions are considered in terms of the validity of the arguments, rather than assessing them according to the power positions of those who advocate them. See also Dialogue Egalitarian dialogue is a form of discussion that takes place when different contributions are considered in terms of the validity of the arguments

Philosophical, theological, and social concept

Martin Buber places dialogue in a central position in his philosophy: he sees dialogue as an effective means of on-going communication rather than as a purposive attempt to reach some conclusion or to express some viewpoint(s). Martin Buber ( 8 February 1878 – 13 June 1965) was an Austrian Israeli Jewish Philosopher, translator

David Bohm originated a related form of dialogue where a group of people talk together in order to explore their assumptions of thinking, meaning, communication, and social effects. David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American This group consists of ten to thirty people who meet for a few hours regularly or a few continuous days. Dialoguers agree to leave behind debate tactics that attempt to convince and, instead, talk from their own experience on subjects that are improvised on the spot. People form their own dialogue groups that usually are offered for free of charge. There exists an international online dialogue list server group, facilitated by Don Factor, co-author of a paper called "Dialogue - A Proposal," with David Bohm and Peter Garrett. (http://www.david-bohm.org/mailman/admin/bohm_dialogue)

Russian philosopher and semiotician^[2] Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of "dialogue" emphasized the power of discourse to increase understanding of multiple perspectives and create myriad possibilities. Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of sign processes (semiosis or signification and communication signs and Symbols both Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin ( Russian: Михаил Михайлович Бахти́н mʲɪxʌˈil mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪʨ bʌxˈtʲin ( November 17, 1895 Bakhtin held that relationships and connections exist among all living beings, and that dialogue creates a new understanding of a situation that demands change. In his influential works, Bakhtin provided a linguistic methodology to define the dialoghe, its nature and meaning:^[3]

Dialogic relations have a specific nature: they can be reduced neither to the purely logical (even if dialectical) nor to the purely linguistic (compositional-syntactic) They are possible only between complete utterances of various speaking subjects. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. The term Composition in written language refers to the process and study of creating written works or pieces of Literature. In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the An utterance is a complete unit of speech in Spoken language. . . Where there is no word and no language, there can be no dialogic relations; they cannot exist among objects or logical quantities (concepts, judgments, and so forth). A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Dialogic relations presuppose a language, but they do not reside within the system of language. They are impossible among elements of a language. ^[4]

Celebrated Brazilian educationalist Paulo Freire, who is known for developing popular education, advanced dialogue as a type of classroom pedagogy. Paulo Freire ( Recife, Brazil September 19, 1921 – São Paulo, Brazil May 2, 1997) was a Brazilian Freire held that dialogued communication allowed students and teachers to learn from one another in an environment characterized by respect and equality. A great advocate for oppressed peoples, Freire was concerned with praxis—action that is informed and linked to people’s values. Dialogued pedagogy was not only about deepening understanding; it was also about making positive changes in the world: to make it better.

Today, dialogue is used in classrooms, community centers, corporations, federal agencies, and other settings to enable people, usually in small groups, to share their perspectives and experiences about difficult issues. It is used to help people resolve long-standing conflicts and to build deeper understanding of contentious issues. Dialogue is not about judging, weighing, or making decisions, but about understanding and learning. Dialogue dispels stereotypes, builds trust, and enables people to be open to perspectives that are very different from their own.

In the past two decades, a rapidly-growing movement for dialogue has been developing. The website of the National Coalition for Dialogue and Deliberation, at http://www.thataway.org, serves as a hub for dialogue (and deliberation) facilitators, conveners, and trainers and houses thousands of resources on these communication methodologies.

Groups such as Worldwide Marriage Encounter and Retrouvaille International use dialogue as a communication tool for married couples. Marriage Encounter (ME is a religiously-based weekend program designed to help married couples improve their Marriage, grow closer to each other and improve commitment to Both groups teach a dialogue method that helps couples learn more about each other in non-threatening postures, which helps to foster growth in the married relationship.

Obstacles

Dialogue is a delicate process. Many obstacles inhibit dialogue and favor more confrontational communication forms such as discussion and debate. Common obstacles including fear, the display or exercise of power, mistrust, external influences, distractions, and poor communication conditions can all prevent dialogue from emerging. ^[5], ^[6]

See also

• Conversation
• Chat
• Speech
• Bohm Dialogue
• Facilitation
• Deliberation
• Interfaith dialogue
• Dialogue Among Civilizations
• Intercultural Dialogue
• Distributed Dialogue Processing - Politics, Democracy, Technology and Collective Learning
• Intersubjectivity

Notes

References

• Bakhtin, M. M. (1986) Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Trans. by Vern W. McGee. Austin, Tx: University of Texas Press.
• Maranhão, Tullio (1990) The Interpretation of Dialogue University of Chicago Press ISBN 0226504336
• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
• The National Coalition for Dialogue and Deliberation
• NCDD's Learning Exchange - for thousands of guides, videos, articles, books, and other resources on dialogue
• Selected Websites on Dialogue
• dialogue: journal for cultural literacy

External links

• Smith, M. K. (2001) Dialogue and conversation, the encyclopaedia of informal education

• Lehigh Dialogue Center

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