Hydrogen-2
Full table
General
Name, symbol	deuterium, 2H or D
Neutrons	1
Protons	1
Nuclide Data
Natural abundance	0. Template talkIso1 -->The isotope table below shows Isotopes of the Chemical elements including all A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet 015%
Half-life	stable
Isotope mass	2. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass 01355321270 u
Spin	1+
Excess energy	13135. The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts 720 ± 0. 001 keV
Binding energy	2224. Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts 52 ± 0. 20 keV

Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly Deuterium thus accounts for approximately 0. 015% (on a weight basis, 0. 030%) of all naturally occurring hydrogen in the oceans on Earth (see VSMOW; the abundance changes slightly from one kind of natural water to another). VSMOW, or Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, is an isotopic water standard defined in 1968 by the International Atomic Energy Agency. Deuterium abundance on Jupiter is about 6 atoms in 10,000 (0. 06% atom basis)^[1]; these ratios presumably reflect the early solar nebula ratios, and those after the Big Bang. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. There is little deuterium in the interior of the Sun, since thermonuclear reactions destroy it. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. However, it continues to persist in the outer solar atmosphere at roughly the same concentration as in Jupiter.

The nucleus of deuterium, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, whereas the far more common hydrogen nucleus contains no neutrons. The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. The isotope name is formed from the Greek deuteros meaning "second", to denote the two particles composing the nucleus. ^[2]

Contents 1 Differences between deuterium and common hydrogen (protium) 1.1 Chemical symbol 1.2 Natural abundance 2 Physical properties 3 Quantum properties 4 Nuclear properties 4.1 Deuterium as an isospin singlet 4.2 Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron 4.3 Magnetic and electric multipoles 4.4 Deuterium radius 5 Applications 6 History 6.1 Lighter element isotopes suspected 6.2 Deuterium predicted and finally detected 6.3 "Heavy water" experiments in World War II 7 Data 8 Anti-deuterium 9 Pycnodeuterium 10 See also 11 References 11.1 Notes 11.2 General references

Differences between deuterium and common hydrogen (protium)

Chemical symbol

Deuterium is frequently represented by the chemical symbol D. See also Chemical formula. A chemical symbol is an Abbreviation or shortened version of the name of a Chemical element Since it is an isotope of hydrogen with mass number 2, it is also represented by ²H. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The mass number ( A) also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of Protons and Neutrons (together known as IUPAC allows both D and ²H, although ²H is preferred. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) (aɪjuːpæk or ay-yoo-pec) is an international Non-governmental organization ^[3] The reason deuterium has a distinct chemical symbol may be its large mass difference with protium (¹H); deuterium has a mass of 2. A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element Hydrogen. The electrically neutral 014 u, compared to the mean hydrogen atomic weight of 1. The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express In Statistics, mean has two related meanings the Arithmetic mean (and is distinguished from the Geometric mean or Harmonic mean The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass 007947 u, and protium's mass of 1. 007825 u. The isotope weight ratios within other chemical elements are largely insignificant in this regard, explaining the lack of unique isotope symbols elsewhere.

Natural abundance

Deuterium occurs in trace amounts naturally as deuterium gas, written ²H₂ or D₂, but most natural occurrence in the universe is bonded with a typical ¹H atom, a gas called hydrogen deuteride (HD or ¹H²H). This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy Hydrogen deuteride is a bi-atomic substance of the two isotopes of Hydrogen: the majority isotope 1H protium and 2H Deuterium ^[4]

The existence of deuterium on Earth, elsewhere in the solar system (as confirmed by planetary probes), and in the spectra of stars, is an important datum in cosmology. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its Stellar fusion destroys deuterium, and there are no known natural processes (for example, see the rare cluster decay), other than the Big Bang nucleosynthesis, which might have produced deuterium at anything close to the observed natural abundance of deuterium. Cluster decay is a type of nuclear decay in which a Radioactive Atom emits a cluster of Neutrons and Protons heavier than an Alpha particle In Physical cosmology, Big Bang nucleosynthesis (or primordial nucleosynthesis) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of H-1 (i This abundance seems to be a very similar fraction of hydrogen, wherever hydrogen is found. Thus, the existence of deuterium is one of the arguments in favor of the Big Bang theory over the steady state theory of the universe. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. In cosmology, the Steady State theory (also known as the Infinite Universe theory or continuous creation) is a model developed in 1948 by Fred It is estimated that the abundances of deuterium have not evolved significantly since their production more than 14 billion years ago. ^[5]

The world's leading "producer" of deuterium (technically, merely enricher or concentrator of deuterium) was Canada, until 1997 when the last plant was shut down (see more in the heavy water article). Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Canada uses heavy water as a neutron moderator for the operation of the CANDU reactor design. In Nuclear engineering, a neutron moderator is a medium which reduces the velocity of Fast neutrons thereby turning them into Thermal neutrons capable The CANDU reactor is a Canadian-invented Pressurized heavy water reactor developed initially in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between Atomic Energy of India is now probably the world's largest concentrator of heavy water, also used in nuclear power reactors.

Physical properties

The physical properties of deuterium compounds can be different from the hydrogen analogs; for example, D₂O is more viscous than H₂O. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. Water ( H2[[oxygen O]] H OH) is the most abundant Molecule on Earth 's surface composing of about 70% of the Earth's surface as ^[6]. Deuterium behaves chemically similarly to ordinary hydrogen, but there are differences in bond energy and length for compounds of heavy hydrogen isotopes which are larger than the isotopic differences in any other element. Bonds involving deuterium and tritium are somewhat stronger than the corresponding bonds in light hydrogen, and these differences are enough to make significant changes in biological reactions (see heavy water). Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O

Deuterium can replace the normal hydrogen in water molecules to form heavy water (D₂O), which is about 10. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O 6% more dense than normal water (enough that ice made from it sinks in ordinary water). Heavy water is slightly toxic in eukaryotic animals, with 25% substitution of the body water causing cell division problems and sterility, and 50% substitution causing death by cytotoxic syndrome (bone marrow failure and gastrointestinal lining failure). Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex Prokaryotic organisms, however, can survive and grow in pure heavy water (though they grow more slowly). The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other ^[7] Consumption of heavy water would not pose a health threat to humans unless very large quantities (in excess of 10 liters) were consumed over many days. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Small doses of heavy water (a few grams in humans, containing an amount of deuterium comparable to that normally present in the body) are routinely used as harmless metabolic tracers in humans and animals.

Quantum properties

The deuteron has spin +1 and is thus a boson. In Particle physics, bosons are particles which obey Bose-Einstein statistics; they are named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein The NMR frequency of deuterium is significantly different from common light hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy also easily differentiates many deuterated compounds, due to the large difference in IR absorption frequency seen in the vibration of a chemical bond containing deuterium, versus light hydrogen. Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy is the subset of Spectroscopy that deals with the Infrared region of the Electromagnetic spectrum. The two stable isotopes of hydrogen can also be distinguished by using mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles

Nuclear properties

Deuterium is one of only four stable nuclides with an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons. A nuclide (from lat nucleus is a species of Atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus and hence by the number of Protons, the number of (²H, ⁶Li, ¹⁰B, ¹⁴N; also, the long-lived radioactive nuclides ⁴⁰K, ⁵⁰V, ¹³⁸La, ^180mTa occur naturally. ) Most odd-odd nuclei are unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even-even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted In Nuclear physics, the semi-empirical mass formula ( SEMF) sometimes also called Weizsäcker's formula is a formula used to approximate the Mass Deuterium, however, benefits from having its proton and neutron coupled to a spin-1 state, which gives a stronger nuclear attraction; the corresponding spin-1 state does not exist in the two-neutron or two-proton system, due to the Pauli exclusion principle which would require one or the other identical particle with the same spin to have some other different quantum number, such as orbital angular momentum. The Pauli exclusion principle is a quantum mechanical principle formulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925 The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number But orbital angular momentum of either particle gives a lower binding energy for the system, primarily due to increasing distance of the particles in the steep gradient of the nuclear force. Binding energy is the Mechanical energy required to disassemble a whole into separate parts In both cases, this causes the di-proton and di-neutron nucleus to be unstable. Instability in systems is generally characterized by some of the Outputs or internal states growing without Bounds.

Deuterium as an isospin singlet

Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. While only the proton has an electric charge, this is often negligible due of the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive In Physics, the electromagnetic force is the force that the Electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles The nuclear force (or nucleon-nucleon interaction or residual strong force) is the force between two or more Nucleons It is responsible for The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted τ. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the

Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the Special Unit 2In Mathematics, the special unitary group of degree n, denoted SU( n) is the group of n × n In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin The proton and neutron form an isospin doublet, with a "down" state being a neutron, and an "up" state being a proton. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic property of all elementary particles. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic property of all elementary particles. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive

A pair of nucleons can either be in an antisymmetric state of isospin called singlet, or in a symmetric state called triplet. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Physics, '''spin''' is the Angular momentum intrinsic to a body as opposed to Orbital angular momentum, which is the motion of its Center of mass In terms of the "down" state and "up" state, the singlet is

This is a nucleus with one proton and one neutron, i. In Quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic property of all elementary particles. In Quantum mechanics, spin is an intrinsic property of all elementary particles. e. a deuterium nucleus.

The triplet is And thus consists of three types of nuclei, which are supposed to be symmetric - a deuterium nucleus (actually a highly excited state of it), a nucleus with two protons, and a nucleus with two neutrons. Excitation is an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. The latter two nuclei are not stable or nearly stable, and therefore so is this type of deuterium (meaning that it is indeed a highly excited state of deuterium). Excitation is an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state

Approximated wavefunction of the deuteron

The total wavefunction of both the proton and neutron must be antisymmetric, because they are both fermions. A wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in Quantum mechanics to describe any physical system The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Statistical mechanics, Fermi-Dirac statistics is a particular case of Particle statistics developed by Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac that In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi. Apart from their isospin, the two nucleons also have spin and spatial distributions of their wavefunction. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin A wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in Quantum mechanics to describe any physical system The latter is symmetric if the deuteron is symmetric under parity (i. In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. e. have an "even" or "positive" parity) , and antisymmetric if the deuteron is antisymmetric under parity (i. In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. e. have an "odd" or "negative" parity). The parity is fully determined by the total orbital angular momentum of the two nucleons: if it is even then the parity is even (positive), and if it is odd then the parity is odd (negative). In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate.

The deuteron, being an isospin singlet, is antisymmetric under nucleons exchange due to isospin, and therefore must be symmetric under the double exchange of their spin and location. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin Therefore it can be in either of the following two different states:

• Symmetric spin and symmetric under parity. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (-1) from isospin exchange, (+1) from spin exchange and (+1) from parity (location exchange), for a total of (-1) as needed for antisymmetry. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. A wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in Quantum mechanics to describe any physical system In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate.
• Antisymmetric spin and antisymmetric under parity. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. In this case, the exchange of the two nucleons will multiply the deuterium wavefunction by (-1) from isospin exchange, (-1) from spin exchange and (-1) from parity (location exchange), again for a total of (-1) as needed for antisymmetry. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. A wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in Quantum mechanics to describe any physical system In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate.

In the first case the deuteron has is a Spin triplet, so that its total spin s is 1. In Physics, '''spin''' is the Angular momentum intrinsic to a body as opposed to Orbital angular momentum, which is the motion of its Center of mass In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin It also has an even parity and therefore even orbital angular momentum l ; The lower its orbital angular momentum, the lower its energy. In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number Therefore the lowest possible energy state has s =1, l =0.

In the second case the deuteron has is a spin singlet, so that its total spin s is 0. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin It also has an odd parity and therefore odd orbital angular momentum l . In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number Therefore the lowest possible energy state has s =0, l =1.

Since s =1 gives a stronger nuclear attraction, the deuterium ground state is in the s =1, l =0 state. In Quantum mechanics, a stationary state is an Eigenstate of a Hamiltonian, or in other words a state of definite energy

The same considerations lead to the possible states of an isospin triplet having s =0, l =even or s =1, l =odd. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the Thus the state of lowest energy has s =1, l =1, higher than that of the isospin singlet. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the

The analysis just given is in fact only approximate, both because isospin is not an exact symmetry, and more importantly because the strong nuclear interaction between the two nucleons is related to angular momentum in a way that mixes different s and l states. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the The nuclear force (or nucleon-nucleon interaction or residual strong force) is the force between two or more Nucleons It is responsible for In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. In Physics, the angular momentum of a particle about an origin is a vector quantity equal to the mass of the particle multiplied by the Cross product of the position In Quantum physics, the spin-orbit interaction (also called spin-orbit effect or spin-orbit coupling) is any interaction of a particle's spin That is, s and l are not constant in time (they do not commute with the Hamiltonian), and over time a state such as s =1, l =0 may become a state of s =1, l =2. In Mathematics, commutativity is the ability to change the order of something without changing the end result Parity is still constant in time so these do not mix with odd l states (such as s =0, l =1). In Physics, a parity transformation (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign of one Spatial Coordinate. Therefore the quantum state of the deuterium is a superposition (a linear combination) of the s =1, l =0 state and the s =1, l =2 state, even though the first component is much bigger. In Quantum physics, a quantum state is a mathematical object that fully describes a quantum system. Since the total angular momentum j is also a good quantum number (it is a constant in time), both components must have the same j, and therefore j =1. See also Azimuthal quantum number#Addition of quantized angular momenta In Quantum mechanics, the total angular quantum momentum numbers parameterize the total Quantum numbers describe values of conserved numbers in the dynamics of the Quantum system. This is the total spin of the deuterium nucleus. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin

To summarize, the deuterium nucleus is antisymmetric in terms of isospin, and has spin 1 and even (+1) parity. In Physics, and specifically Particle physics, isospin ( isotopic spin, isobaric spin) is a Quantum number related to the In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin The relative angular momentum of its nucleons l is not well defined, and the deuterium is a superposition of mostly l =0 with some l =2. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton.

Magnetic and electric multipoles

In order to find theoretically the deuterium magnetic dipole moment μ, one uses the formula for a nuclear magnetic moment

with

g^(l) and g^(s) are g-factors of the nucleons. In Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and Electrical engineering, the term magnetic moment of a system (such as a loop of Electric current The nuclear magnetic moment is the Magnetic moment of an Atomic nucleus and arises from the spin of the Protons and Neutrons It is mainly a magnetic For the acceleration-related quantity in mechanics see ''g''-force. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton.

Since the proton and neutron have different values for g^(l) and g^(s), one must separate their contributions. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Each gets half of the deuterium orbital angular momentum and spin . The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin One arrives at

where subscripts p and n stand for the proton and neutron, and g^(l)_n = 0.

By using the same identities as here and using the value g^(l)_p = 1 in nuclear magneton units, we arrive at the following result, in nuclear magneton units

For the s =1, l =0 state j =1 and we get, in nuclear magneton units

For the s =1, l =2 state with j =1 we get, in nuclear magneton units

The measured value of the deuterium magnetic dipole moment, in nuclear magneton units, is 0. The nuclear magnetic moment is the Magnetic moment of an Atomic nucleus and arises from the spin of the Protons and Neutrons It is mainly a magnetic The nuclear magneton (symbol \mu_\mathrm{N}\! is a Physical constant of Magnetic moment, defined by \mu_\mathrm{N} = The nuclear magneton (symbol \mu_\mathrm{N}\! is a Physical constant of Magnetic moment, defined by \mu_\mathrm{N} = The nuclear magneton (symbol \mu_\mathrm{N}\! is a Physical constant of Magnetic moment, defined by \mu_\mathrm{N} = The nuclear magneton (symbol \mu_\mathrm{N}\! is a Physical constant of Magnetic moment, defined by \mu_\mathrm{N} = In Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and Electrical engineering, the term magnetic moment of a system (such as a loop of Electric current The nuclear magneton (symbol \mu_\mathrm{N}\! is a Physical constant of Magnetic moment, defined by \mu_\mathrm{N} = 857. This suggests that the state of the deuterium is indeed only approximately s =1, l =0 state, and is actually a linear combination of (mostly) this state with s =1, l =2 state.

The electric dipole is zero as usual. In physics there are two kinds of dipoles ( Hellènic: di(s- = two- and pòla = pivot hinge An electric dipole is a In Nuclear physics, the nuclear shell model is a model of the Atomic nucleus which uses the Pauli principle to describe the structure

The measured electric quadropole of the deuterium is 0. A quadrupole or quadrapole is one of a sequence of configurations of — for example — electric charge or current or gravitational mass that can exist in ideal form but it 2859 e fm², where e is the proton electric charge and fm is fermi. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some Subatomic particles which determines their Electromagnetic interaction. While the order of magnitude is reasonable, since the deuterium radius is of order of 1 fermi (see below) and its electric charge is e, the above model does not suffice for its computation. Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some Subatomic particles which determines their Electromagnetic interaction. More specifically, the electric quadropole does not get a contribution from the l =0 state (which is the dominant one) and does get a contribution from a term mixing the l =0 and the l =2 states, because the electric quadrupole operator does not commute with angular momentum. A quadrupole or quadrapole is one of a sequence of configurations of — for example — electric charge or current or gravitational mass that can exist in ideal form but it A quadrupole or quadrapole is one of a sequence of configurations of — for example — electric charge or current or gravitational mass that can exist in ideal form but it In Mathematics, an operator is a function which operates on (or modifies another function In Mathematics, commutativity is the ability to change the order of something without changing the end result In Physics, the angular momentum of a particle about an origin is a vector quantity equal to the mass of the particle multiplied by the Cross product of the position The latter contribution is dominant in the absence of a pure l =0 contribution, but cannot be calculated without knowing the exact spatial form of the nucleons wavefunction inside the deuterium. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. A wave function or wavefunction is a mathematical tool used in Quantum mechanics to describe any physical system

Higher magnetic and electric multipole moments cannot be calculated by the above model, for similar reasons. Multipole moments are the Coefficients of a Series expansion of a Potential due to continuous or discrete sources (e

Deuterium radius

Further information: Nuclear size

The square root of the average squared radius of the deuterium, measured experimentally, is fermi (= 0. The size of an atomic nucleus is of the order of 10^{-15} metres 96 fm).

Applications

Deuterium is useful in nuclear fusion reactions, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D-T reaction. In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. The nuclear cross section of a nucleus is used to characterize the Probability that a nuclear reaction will occur In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός There is an even higher-yield D-He₃ fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D-He₃ is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of He₃, this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D-T and D-D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. In Economics, specifically Cost accounting, the break-even point (BEP is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal there is no net loss or gain Unlike protium, deuterium undergoes fusion purely via the strong interaction, making its use for commercial power plausible. A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element Hydrogen. The electrically neutral

In chemistry and biochemistry, deuterium is used as a non-radioactive isotopic tracer in molecules to study chemical reactions and metabolic pathways, because chemically it behaves similarly to ordinary hydrogen, but it can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen by its mass, using mass spectrometry or infrared spectrometry. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy is the subset of Spectroscopy that deals with the Infrared region of the Electromagnetic spectrum.

Neutron scattering techniques particularly profit from availability of deuterated samples: The H and D cross sections are very distinct and different in sign, which allows contrast variation in such experiments. The term "Neutron Scattering" encompasses all scientific techniques whereby the deflection of Neutron radiation is used as a scientific probe Further, a nuisance problem of ordinary hydrogen is its large incoherent neutron cross section, which is nil for D and delivers much clearer signals in deuterated samples. Hydrogen occurs in all materials of organic chemistry and life science, but cannot be seen by X-ray diffraction methods. Hydrogen can be seen by neutron diffraction and scattering, which makes neutron scattering, together with a modern deuteration facility, indispensable for many studies of macromolecules in biology and many other areas.

Deuterium is useful in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (proton NMR). Proton NMR (also Hydrogen-1 NMR, or 1HNMR) is the application of Nuclear magnetic resonance in NMR spectroscopy NMR ordinarily requires compounds of interest to be analyzed as dissolved in solution. Because of deuterium's nuclear spin properties which differ from the light hydrogen usually present in organic molecules, NMR spectra of hydrogen/protium are highly differentiable from that of deuterium, and in practice deuterium is not "seen" by an NMR instrument tuned to light-hydrogen. Deuterated solvents (including heavy water, but also compounds like deuterated chloroform CDCl₃) are therefore routinely used in NMR spectroscopy, in order to allow only the light-hydrogen spectra of the compound of interest to be measured, without solvent-signal interference.

Deuterium can also be used for femtosecond infrared spectroscopy, since the mass difference drastically affects the frequency of molecular vibrations; deuterium-carbon bond vibrations are found in locations free of other signals. Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of

Measurements of small variations in the natural abundances of deuterium, along with those of the stable heavy oxygen isotopes ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O, are of importance in hydrology, to trace the geographic origin of Earth's waters. Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of The heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in rainwater (so-called meteoric water) are enriched as a function of the environmental temperature of the region in which the precipitation falls (and thus enrichment is related to mean latitude). Meteoric water is a Hydrologic term of long standing for water in the ground which originates from precipitation. The relative enrichment of the heavy isotopes in rainwater (as referenced to mean ocean water), when plotted against temperature falls predictably along a line called the global meteoric water line (GMWL). The Global Meteoric Water Line is an equation defined by the geochemist Harmon Craig that states the average relationship between Hydrogen and Oxygen isotope This plot allows samples of precipitation-originated water to be identified along with general information about the climate in which it originated. Evaporative and other processes in bodies of water, and also ground water processes, also differentially alter the ratios of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in fresh and salt waters, in characteristic and often regionally-distinctive ways. ^[8]

The proton and neutron making up deuterium can be dissociated through neutral current interactions with neutrinos. Dissociation in Chemistry and Biochemistry is a general process in which ionic compounds ( complexes, Molecules, or Salts) separate Weak neutral current interactions are one of the ways in which Subatomic particles can interact by means of the Weak force. Neutrinos are Elementary particles that travel close to the Speed of light, lack an Electric charge, are able to pass through ordinary matter almost The cross section for this interaction is comparatively large, and deuterium was successfully used as a neutrino target in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory experiment. In nuclear and Particle physics, the concept of a cross section is used to express the likelihood of interaction between particles The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory ( SNO) is a Neutrino observatory located 6800 feet (about 2 km underground in Vale Inco 's Creighton Mine

History

Lighter element isotopes suspected

The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectroscopy of light elements in 1920. Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar The prevailing theory at the time, however, was that the isotopes were due to the existence of differing numbers of "nuclear electrons" in different atoms of an element. It was expected that hydrogen, with a measured average atomic mass very close to 1 u, and a nucleus thought to be composed of a single proton (a known particle), could not contain nuclear electrons, and thus could have no heavy isotopes.

Deuterium predicted and finally detected

Deuterium was predicted in 1926 by Walter Russell, using his "spiral" periodic table. Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Walter Russell (1871&ndash1963 was an American Polymath best known for his achievements in Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, and for his controversial It was first detected spectroscopically in late 1931 by Harold Urey, a chemist at Columbia University. Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Harold Clayton Urey ( April 29, 1893 &ndash January 5, 1981) was an American Physical chemist whose pioneering work Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Urey's collaborator, Ferdinand Brickwedde, distilled five liters of cryogenically-produced liquid hydrogen to 1 mL of liquid, using the low-temperature physics laboratory that had recently been established at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D. Ferdinand Graft Brickwedde (1903-1989 a physicist at the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) in 1931 produced the first Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. Cryogenics is often used incorrectly to refer to Cryonics, cryopreserving humans or animals C. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology). This concentrated the fraction of the mass-2 isotope of hydrogen to a degree that made its spectroscopic identification unambiguous; Urey called the isotope "deuterium" from the Greek and Latin words for "two". Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The amount inferred for normal abundance of this heavy isotope was so small (only about 1 atom in 6400 hydrogen atoms in ocean water) that it had not noticeably affected previous measurements of (average) hydrogen atomic mass. Urey was also able to concentrate water to show partial enrichment of deuterium. Gilbert Newton Lewis prepared the first samples of pure heavy water in 1933. Gilbert Newton Lewis ( October 23, 1875 - March 23, 1946) was a famous American physical chemist known for the discovery Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The discovery of deuterium, coming before the discovery of the neutron in 1932, was an experimental shock to theory, and after the neutron was reported, deuterium won Urey the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1934. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

"Heavy water" experiments in World War II

Main Article: Heavy water

Shortly before the war, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski moved their research on neutron moderation from France to England, smuggling the entire global supply of heavy water (made in Norway) across in twenty-six steel drums. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Hans von Halban ( Leipzig, 24 January 1908 - Paris, 28 November 1964) was a French Physicist, of Lew Kowarski ( 10 February, 1907 - 30 July, 1979) was a Naturalized French Physicist, of Russian-Polish descent ^[9][10]

During World War II, Nazi Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a nuclear reactor design. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled (Heavy water is water in which the hydrogen is deuterium. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. ) Such experiments were a source of concern because they might allow them to produce plutonium for an atomic bomb. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Ultimately, it led to (what seemed to be important at that time) the Allied operation called the "Norwegian heavy water sabotage," the purpose of which was to destroy the Vemork deuterium production/enrichment facility in Norway. The Western Allies were the democracies and their colonial peoples within the broader coalition of Allies during World War II. The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was a series of actions taken by Norwegian saboteurs during World War II to prevent the German nuclear energy project from acquiring Vemork is the name of an hydroelectric Power plant outside Rjukan in Tinn, Norway. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional

After World War II ended, the Allies discovered that Germany was not putting as much serious effort into the program as had been previously thought. The Germans had completed only a small, partly-built experimental reactor (which had been hidden away). By the end of the war, the Germans did not even have a fifth the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the Norwegian heavy water sabotage operation. The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was a series of actions taken by Norwegian saboteurs during World War II to prevent the German nuclear energy project from acquiring However, even had the Germans succeeded in getting a reactor operational (as the U.S. did with a graphite reactor in late 1942), they would still have been at least several years away from development of an atomic bomb with maximal effort. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The engineering process, even with maximal effort and funding, required about two and a half years (from first critical reactor to bomb) in both the U. S. and U.S.S.R, for example. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

Data

• Density: 0. 180 kg/m³ at STP (0 °C, 101. In Physical sciences standard conditions for temperature and pressure are Standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to allow comparisons to be made 325 kPa).
• Atomic weight: 2. 01355321270.
• Mean abundance in ocean water (see VSMOW) about 0. VSMOW, or Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, is an isotopic water standard defined in 1968 by the International Atomic Energy Agency. 0156 % of H atoms = 1/6400 H atoms.

Data at approximately 18 K for D₂ (triple point):

• Density:

• Liquid: 162. In Thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the Temperature and Pressure at which three phases (for example Gas, Liquid 4 kg/m³
• Gas: 0. 452 kg/m³

• Viscosity: 12. 6 µPa·s at 300 Kelvin (gas phase)
• Specific heat capacity at constant pressure c_p:

• Solid: 2950 J/(kg·K)
• Gas: 5200 J/(kg·K)

Anti-deuterium

An antideuteron is the antiparticle of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an antiproton and an antineutron. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The antiproton ( pronounced p-bar) is the Antiparticle of the Proton. The antineutron is the Antiparticle of the Neutron. It was discovered (in proton-proton collisions in the Bevatron at Berkeley by Bruce Cork in The antideuteron was first produced in 1965 at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN^[11] and the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory^[12]. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. The Proton Synchrotron (PS is the first major Particle accelerator at CERN, built as a 28 GeV Proton accelerator in the late 1950's and The European Organization for Nuclear Research (Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire known as CERN Brookhaven National Laboratory ( BNL) is a United States national laboratory located in Upton New York on Long Island, and was formally established A complete atom, with a positron orbiting the nucleus, would be called antideuterium, but as of 2005 antideuterium has not yet been created. The positrons or antielectron is the Antiparticle or the Antimatter counterpart of the Electron. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The symbol for antideuterium is the same as for deuterium, except with a bar over it.

Pycnodeuterium

Deuterium atoms can be absorbed into a Paladium (Pd) lattice. They are effectively solidified as an ultrahigh density deuterium lump (Pycnodeuterium) inside each octahedral space within the unit cell of the Pd host lattice. The authors believe this can be used as a nuclear fuel in cold fusion. ^[13] Although this mechanism does result in high concentrations of deuterium in volumes, the reality of actual cold fusion by this mechanism has not been generally accepted within the scientific community ^[14]

See also

• Isotopes of hydrogen
• Fusion
• Tokamaks
• Tritium
• Heavy water

References

Notes

1. ^ "Hubble measures deuterium on Jupiter", Science News – Find Articles, 5 October 1996. Hydrogen ( H) (Standard atomic mass 100794(7 u) has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H 2H A tokamak is a machine producing a toroidal Magnetic field for confining a plasma. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Heavy water is water which contains a higher proportion than normal of the Isotope Deuterium, as deuterium oxide, D2O or ²H2O Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2007-09-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.  
2. ^ Deuteros at Studylight. org
3. ^ § IR-3. 3. 2, Provisional Recommendations, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division, IUPAC. Accessed on line October 3, 2007. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
4. ^ IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2001). The year 2001 in Science and Technology involved many events some of which are included below "Names for Muonium and Hydrogen Atoms and their Ions" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry 73: 377–380. Pure and Applied Chemistry (abb Pure Appl Chem) is the official journal for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.  
5. ^ The End of Cosmology?: Scientific American
6. ^ David R. Lide. , (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Internet Version 2005.  
7. ^ D. J. Kushner, Alison Baker, and T. G. Dunstall (1999). "Pharmacological uses and perspectives of heavy water and deuterated compounds". Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 77 (2): 79–88. PMID 10535697.  
8. ^ Oxygen – Isotopes and Hydrology. SAHRA. Retrieved on 2007-09-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.
9. ^ Sherriff, Lucy (2007-06-01). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Royal Society unearths top secret nuclear research. The Register. Situation Publishing Ltd. . Retrieved on 2007-06-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering
10. ^ The Battle for Heavy Water Three physicists' heroic exploits. CERN Bulletin. European Organization for Nuclear Research (2002-04-01). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Retrieved on 2007-06-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering
11. ^ Massam, T. , et al. (1965). "Experimental observation of antideuteron production". Il Nuovo Cimento 39: 10–14.  
12. ^ Dorfan, D. E. , et al. (June 1965). "Observation of Antideuterons". Phys. Rev. Lett. 14 (24): 1003–1006. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.1003. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
13. ^ Arata Y, Zhang Y-C, Fujita H, Inoue A; Koon Gakkaishi 29(2) (2003). "Discovery of solid deuterium nuclear fusion of pycnodeuterium-lumps solidified locally within nano-Pd particles". Formation of condensed metallic deuterium lattice and nuclear fusion (2006/10/17).
14. ^ Feder, Toni (2005), “Cold Fusion Gets Chilly Encore”, Physics Today (no. January): 31, <http://scitation.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_58/iss_1/31_1.shtml>. Retrieved on 28 May 2008 

General references

• Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab
• Mullins, Justin (27 April 2005). Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "Desktop nuclear fusion demonstrated with deuterium gas". New Scientist.  
• Annotated bibliography for Deuterium from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
• Missing Gas Found in Milky Way. Space. com

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