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For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation).
DEMENTIA
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 F00.-F07.
ICD-9 290-294
DiseasesDB 29283
MedlinePlus 000739
MeSH D003704

Dementia (from Latin de- "apart, away" + mens (genitive mentis) "mind") is the progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or disease in the brain beyond what might be expected from normal aging. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings The 2007 version of the ICD is available online at http//wwwwho The 2007 version of the ICD is available online at http//wwwwho The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. The Diseases Database is a free Website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions Symptoms, and Medications. MedlinePlus, with the MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, is a website network containing Health information from the world's largest medical Library Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In Roman mythology, Mens, also known as Bona Mens or Mens Bona ( Latin for "Good Mind" was the Personification of thought In Grammar, the genitive case or possessive case (also called the second case) is the case that marks a Noun as modifying another Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Ageing or aging (American English is the accumulation of changes in an organism Although dementia is far more common in the geriatric population, it may occur in any stage of adulthood. Geriatrics is the branch of Medicine that focuses on health care of the elderly This age cutoff is defining, as similar sets of symptoms due to organic brain dysfunction are given different names in populations younger than adulthood (see, for instance, developmental disorders). Developmental disorders are disorders that occur at some stage in a Child 's development often retarding the development

In dementia, affected areas in cognition may be memory, attention, language, and problem solving. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive Higher mental functions are affected first in the process. Especially in the later stages of the condition, affected persons may be disoriented in time (not knowing what day of the week, day of the month, month, or even what year it is), in place (not knowing where they are), and in person (not knowing who they are). Orientation is a function of the Mind involving awareness of three dimensions Time, Place and Person.

Symptoms of dementia can be classified as either reversible or irreversible depending upon the etiology of the disease. Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Less than 10 percent of cases of dementia are due to causes which may presently be reversed with treatment. Dementia is a term for a non-specific illness syndrome (set of symptoms) which is caused by many different specific disease processes, in the same way that symptoms of organ dysfunction such as shortness of breath, jaundice, or pain are attributable to many etiologies. Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective "icteric" is yellowish discoloration of the Skin, sclerae (whites of the eyes Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm

Without careful assessment of history, the short-term syndrome of delirium can easily be confused with dementia, because many of the symptoms of these are also present in dementia. Delirium is an acute and relatively sudden (developing over hours to days decline in attention-focus perception and Cognition. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from Some mental illnesses including depression and psychosis may also produce symptoms which must be differentiated from both delirium and dementia. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as In the fields of Psychology and Psychiatry, the terms depression or depressed refer to both expected and pathologically chronic or severe Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic [1]

Contents

Diagnosis

Proper differential diagnosis between the types of dementia (cortical and subcortical - see below) will require, at the least, referral to a specialist, e. The cerebral cortex is a structure within the Brain that plays a key role in Memory, Attention, perceptual Awareness, Thought, The cerebral cortex is a structure within the Brain that plays a key role in Memory, Attention, perceptual Awareness, Thought, g. a geriatric internist, geriatric psychiatrist, neurologist, neuropsychologist or geropsychologist. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors However, there exist some brief tests (5-15 minutes) that have reasonable reliability and can be used in the office or other setting to screen cognitive status for deficits which are considered pathological. Examples of such tests include the abbreviated mental test score (AMTS), the mini mental state examination (MMSE), Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS),[2] the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI),[3] and the clock drawing test. The abbreviated mental test score ( AMTS) was introduced by Hodkinson in 1972 to rapidly assess Elderly Patients for the possibility of Dementia The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. [4]. An AMTS score of less than six (out of a possible score of ten) and an MMSE score under 24 (out of a possible score of 30) suggests a need for further evaluation. The abbreviated mental test score ( AMTS) was introduced by Hodkinson in 1972 to rapidly assess Elderly Patients for the possibility of Dementia The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. Scores must be interpreted in the context of the person's educational and other background, and the particular circumstances; for example, a person highly depressed or in great pain will not be expected to do well on many tests of mental ability.

Mini-mental state examination

Main article: Mini-mental state examination

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) reviewed tests for cognitive impairment and concluded:[5]

sensitivity 71% to 92%
specificity 56% to 96%

A copy of the MMSE can be found in the appendix of the original publication. The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. [6]

Modified Mini-Mental State examination (3MS)

A copy of the 3MS is online. [7] A meta-analysis concluded that the Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) examination has:[8]

sensitivity 83% to 94%
specificity 85% to 90%

Abbreviated mental test score

Main article: abbreviated mental test score

A meta-analysis concluded:[8]

sensitivity 73% to 100%
specificity 71% to 100%

Other examinations

Many other tests have been studied[9][10][11] including the clock-drawing test example form). In Statistics, a meta-analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses The abbreviated mental test score ( AMTS) was introduced by Hodkinson in 1972 to rapidly assess Elderly Patients for the possibility of Dementia In Statistics, a meta-analysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses Although some may emerge as better alternatives to the MMSE, presently the MMSE is the best studied. However, access to the MMSE is now limited by enforcement of its copyright (details). The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition.

Another approach to screening for dementia is to ask an informant (relative or other supporter) to fill out a questionnaire about the person's everyday cognitive functioning. Informant questionnaires provide complementary information to brief cognitive tests. Probably the best known questionnaire of this sort is the Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE). The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE is a questionnaire that can be filled out by a relative or other supporter (the informant of an older person to [12]

Further evaluation includes retesting at another date, and administration of other (and sometimes more complex) tests of mental function, such as formal neuropsychological testing. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors

Laboratory tests

Routine blood tests are also usually performed to rule out treatable causes. A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a Blood sample that is usually extracted from a Vein in the arm using a needle, or via These tests include vitamin B12, folic acid, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), C-reactive protein, full blood count, electrolytes, calcium, renal function, and liver enzymes. Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) is a Peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by Thyrotrope cells in the C-reactive protein ( CRP) is a Plasma protein, an Acute phase protein produced by the Liver and by Adipocytes. A complete blood count ( CBC) also known as full blood count ( FBC) or full blood exam ( FBE) or blood panel, is An electrolyte is any substance containing free Ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium Calcium (Ca2+ plays a vital role in the Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry of Organisms and of the cell, particularly Renal function, in Nephrology, is an indication of the state of the Kidney and its role in Renal physiology. Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs which include liver enzymes, are groups of Clinical biochemistry laboratory blood assays designed to give information about the Abnormalities may suggest vitamin deficiency, infection or other problems that commonly cause confusion or disorientation in the elderly. Avitaminosis is any Disease caused by chronic or long-term Vitamin deficiency or caused by a defect in metabolic conversion such as tryptophan to niacin An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. The problem is complicated by the fact that these cause confusion more often in persons who have early dementia, so that "reversal" of such problems may ultimately only be temporary.

Chronic use of substances such as alcohol can also predispose the patient to cognitive changes suggestive of dementia.

Imaging

A CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scan) is commonly performed, although these modalities (as is noted below) do not have optimal sensitivity for the diffuse metabolic changes associated with dementia in a patient who shows no gross neurological problems (such as paralysis or weakness) on neurological exam. Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. CT or MRI may suggest normal pressure hydrocephalus, a potentially reversible cause of dementia, and can yield information relevant to other types of dementia, such as infarction (stroke) that would point at a vascular type of dementia. Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH is a chronic type of communicating Hydrocephalus whereby the increase in Intracranial pressure (ICP due to accumulation of A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain However, the functional neuroimaging modalities of SPECT and PET have shown similar ability to diagnose dementia as clinical exam. Functional neuroimaging is the use of Neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT or less commonly SPET is a Nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using Gamma rays. A pet is an Animal kept for companionship and enjoyment or a househeld animal as opposed to Livestock, Laboratory animals Working animals [13] The ability of SPECT to differentiate the vascular cause from the Alzheimer disease cause of dementias, appears to be superior to differentiation by clinical exam. [14]

Types

Cortical dementias

Subcortical dementias

Dementia and early onset dementia have been associated with neurovisceral porphyrias. Porphyria is listed in textbooks in the differential diagnosis of dementia. Porphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain Enzymes in the Heme biosynthetic pathway (also called Porphyrin pathway Because acute intermittent porphyria, hereditary coproporphyria and variegate porphyria are aggravated by environmental toxins and drugs the disorders should be ruled out when these etiologies are raised.

Treatment

Except for the treatable types listed above, there is no cure to this illness, although scientists are progressing in making a type of medication that will slow down the process. Cholinesterase inhibitors are often used early in the disease course. An acetylcholinesterase inhibitor or anti-cholinesterase is a chemical that inhibits the Cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down Acetylcholine Cognitive and behavioral interventions may also be appropriate. Educating and providing emotional support to the caregiver (or carer) is of importance as well (see also elderly care). See also Carers rights movement, Caregiving and dementia Carer (UK NZ Australian usage and caregiver (US Canadian usage are words normally ---- Elderly care or simply eldercare is the fulfillment of the special needs and requirements that are unique to senior citizens

A Canadian study found that a lifetime of bilingualism has a marked influence on delaying the onset of dementia by an average of four years when compared to monolingual patients. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Monoglottism ( Greek monos, "alone solitary" + glotta, "tongue language" or more commonly monolingualism or unilingualism The researchers determined that the onset of dementia symptoms in the monolingual group occurred at the mean age of 71. 4, while the bilingual group was 75. 5 years. The difference remained even after considering the possible effect of cultural differences, immigration, formal education, employment and even gender as influences in the results. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social [15]

Medications

Tacrine (Cognex), donepezil (Aricept), galantamine (Reminyl), and rivastigmine (Exelon) are approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of dementia induced by Alzheimer disease. An acetylcholinesterase inhibitor or anti-cholinesterase is a chemical that inhibits the Cholinesterase enzyme from breaking down Acetylcholine Tacrine is a Parasympathomimetic and a centrally acting Cholinesterase inhibitor (anticholinesterase Donepezil (also used incorrectly as Donezepil marketed under the trade name Aricept ( Eisai) ( Pfizer) is a centrally acting reversible Acetylcholinesterase Galantamine (trade names Razadyne, Razadyne ER, Reminyl, Memeron) is a drug used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease Rivastigmine (sold under the trade name Exelon) is a parasympathomimetic or Cholinergic agent that was developed by Novartis for the treatment They may be useful for other similar diseases causing dementia such as Parkinsons or vascular dementia. [16]

Off label

Minocycline and Clioquinoline, antibiotics, may help reduce amyloid deposits in the brains of persons with Alzheimer disease. Minocycline hydrochloride, also known as minocycline, is a member of the broad spectrum Tetracycline antibiotics, and has a broader spectrum than the other members Amyloids are insoluble fibrous Protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits [17]

Haloperidol (Haldol), risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and quetiapine (Seroquel) are frequently prescribed to help manage psychosis and agitation. Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-ǐ-dōn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, the Olanzapine ( Zyprexa, Zyprexa Zydis, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, or in combination with Fluoxetine Symbyax) is Quetiapine ( kwe-TYE-a-peen marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, is an Atypical antipsychotic Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Treatment of dementia-associated psychosis or agitation is intended to decrease psychotic symptoms (for example, paranoia, delusions, hallucinations), screaming, combativeness, and/or violence. [18][19]

Depression is frequently associated with dementia and generally worsens the degree of cognitive and behavioral impairment. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Antidepressants may be helpful in alleviating cognitive and behavior symptoms by reuptaking neurotransmitter regulation through reuptake of serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine. An antidepressant is a Psychiatric medication used for alleviating major depression or Dysthymia ('milder' depression See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates

Many patients with dementia experience anxiety symptoms. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Although benzodiazepines like diazepam (Valium) have been used for treating anxiety in other situations, they are often avoided because they may increase agitation in persons with dementia or are too sedating. The benzodiazepines (pronounced, often abbreviated to "benzos") are a class of Psychoactive drugs with varying Hypnotic Diazepam (daɪˈæzɨpæm first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a Benzodiazepine derivative Drug. Buspirone (Buspar) is often initially tried for mild-to-moderate anxiety. Buspirone (brand-names Ansial, Ansiced, Anxiron, Axoren, Bespar, BuSpar, Buspimen, Buspinol,

Selegiline, a drug used primarily in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, appears to slow the development of dementia. Selegiline (l-deprenyl Eldepryl Zelapar or Anipryl Veterinary) is a drug used for the treatment of early-stage Parkinson's disease, Depression Selegiline is thought to act as an antioxidant, preventing free radical damage. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules In Chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atoms molecules or ions with Unpaired electrons on an otherwise Open shell However, it also acts as a stimulant, making it difficult to determine whether the delay in onset of dementia symptoms is due to protection from free radicals or to the general elevation of brain activity from the stimulant effect.

Prevention

Main article: Prevention of dementia

Since there is no cure for dementia, the best an individual can do is to prevent it from developing in the first place. Prevention of dementia is the attempt to avoid developing Dementia.

The main method to prevent dementia is to live an active life, both mentally and physically. It appears that the regular moderate consumption of alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) may reduce risk. [20]

Furthermore, there are medications which might contribute to prevent the onset of dementia, including hypertension medications, anti-diabetic drugs, and NSAIDs. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAID s or NAID s, are drugs with Analgesic, Antipyretic and in higher [21]

Studies published in US journals suggested that a Mediterranean diet or long-term beta-carotene supplements could ward off dementia. The Mediterranean diet is a modern nutritional recommendation inspired by the traditional dietary patterns of some of the countries of the Mediterranean Basin. [22]

Risk to self and others

Driving with Dementia could lead to severe injury or even death to self and others. Driving is the controlled operation of a land Vehicle, usually a Motor vehicle such as a Truck or a car. Doctors should advise appropriate testing on when to quit driving. [23]

Florida's Baker Act allows law enforcement and the judiciary to force mental evaluation for those suspected of suffering from Dementia or other mental incapacities. The Florida Mental Health Act of 1971 is commonly known as the "Baker Act" in Florida Discussion As an aspect of the Social contract between a state and its Citizens the state adopts a role of protector to the weaker and more vulnerable members

Services

Adult daycare centers as well as special care units in nursing homes often provide specialized care for dementia patients. An adult daycare center is a non-residential facility specializing in providing activities for Elderly and/or Handicapped individuals Adult daycare centers offer supervision, recreation, meals, and limited health care to participants, as well as providing respite for caregivers.

Further reading

References

  1. ^ American Family Physician, March 1, 2003 Delirium
  2. ^ Teng E L, Chui H C. See also Caregiver See also Carers rights movement As populations age, caregiving and dementia become more common aspects of life Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS) examination. J Clin Psychiatry 1987;48:314–18. PMID 3611032
  3. ^ Teng E L, Hasegawa K, Homma A, et al. The Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI): a practical test for cross-cultural epidemiological studies of dementia. Int Psychogeriatr 1994;6:45–58. PMID 8054493
  4. ^ Royall, D. ; Cordes J. ; & Polk M. (1998). "CLOX: an executive clock drawing task". J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 64 (5): 588-94. PMID 9598672.  
  5. ^ Boustani, M. ; Peterson, B. ; Hanson, L. ; Harris, R. ; & Lohr, K. (2003). "Screening for dementia in primary care: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force". Ann Intern Med 138 (11): 927-37. PMID 12779304.  
  6. ^ Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR (1975). ""Mini-mental state". A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician". Journal of psychiatric research 12 (3): 189-98. doi:10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 1202204.  
  7. ^ Appendix: The Modified Mini-Mental State (3MS). Retrieved on 2007-09-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 3114 BC - According to the Proleptic Julian calendar the current era in the Maya Long Count Calendar started
  8. ^ a b Cullen B, O'Neill B, Evans JJ, Coen RF, Lawlor BA. A review of screening tests for cognitive impairment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;78(8):790-9. Epub 2006 Dec 18. PMID 17178826
  9. ^ Sager, M. ; Hermann, B. ; La Rue, A. ; & Woodard, J. (2006). "Screening for dementia in community-based memory clinics". WMJ 105 (7): 25-9. PMID 17163083.  
  10. ^ Fleisher, A. ; Sowell B. ; Taylor C. ; Gamst A. ; Petersen R. ; & Thal L. . "Clinical predictors of progression to Alzheimer disease in amnestic mild cognitive impairment". Neurology. PMID 17287448.  
  11. ^ Karlawish, J. & Clark, C. (2003). "Diagnostic evaluation of elderly patients with mild memory problems". Ann Intern Med 138 (5): 411-9. PMID 12614094.  
  12. ^ Jorm, A. F. (2004). The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE): A review. International Psychogeriatrics, 16, 1-19.
  13. ^ Bonte, FJ; Harris TS, Hynan LS, Bigio EH, White CL 3rd (July 2006). "Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT in the differential diagnosis of the dementias with histopathologic confirmation". Clinical Nuclear Medicine 31 (7): 376-8. PMID 16785801.  
  14. ^ Dougall, NJ; Bruggink S, Ebmeier KP (Nov-Dec 2004). "Systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of 99mTc-HMPAO-SPECT in dementia". The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 12 (6): 554-70. PMID 15545324.  
  15. ^ Bilingualism Has Protective Effect In Delaying Onset Of Dementia By Four Years, Canadian Study Shows. Medical News Today (2007-01-11). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1055 - Theodora is crowned Empress of the Byzantine Empire. Retrieved on 2007-01-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
  16. ^ Lleo A, Greenberg SM, Growdon JH. Current pharmacotherapy for Alzheimer's disease. Annu Rev Med. 2006;57:513-33. Review. PMID 16409164
  17. ^ Choi, Y. , Kim, H. S. , Shin, K. Y. , Kim, E. M. , Kim, M. , Kim, H. S. , Park, C. H. , Jeong, Y. H. , Yoo, J. , Lee, J. P. , Chang K. A. , Kim S. , & Suh, Y. H. Related Minocycline Attenuates Neuronal Cell Death and Improves Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer's Disease Models. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007 Apr 4; PMID 17406652
  18. ^ Wei, Z. , Mousseau, D. D. , Dai, Y. , Cao, X. , Li, X. M. (2006). Haloperidol induces apoptosis via the sigma2 receptor system and Bcl-XS. Pharmacogenomics J. 6(4):279-88. Epub 2006 Feb 7. PMID 16462815
  19. ^ Wang, H. , Xu, H. , Dyck, L. E. , & Li, X. M. (2005). Olanzapine and quetiapine protect PC12 cells from beta-amyloid peptide(25-35)-induced oxidative stress and the ensuing apoptosis. Journal Neuroscience Res, 81(4):572-80. PMID 15948179
  20. ^ Mulkamal, K. J. , et al. Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2003 (March 19), 289, 1405-1413; Ganguli, M. , et al. Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: A longitudinal community study. Neurology, 2005, 65, 1210-12-17; Huang, W. , et al. Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 2002, 55(10), 959-964; Rodgers, B. , et al. Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1280-1290; Anstey, K. J. , et al. Lower cognitive test scores observed in alcohol are associated with demographic, personality, and biological factors: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1291-1301; Espeland, M. , et al. Association between alcohol intake and domain-specific cognitive function in older women. Neuroepidemiology, 2006, 1(27), 1-12; Stampfer, M. J. , et al'. Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 2005, 352, 245-253; Ruitenberg, A. , et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet, 2002, 359(9303), 281-286; Scarmeas, N. , et al. Mediterranean diet and risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Annals of Neurology, 2006 (published online April 18, 2006). Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
  21. ^ West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources (with further links to experiments respectively)
  22. ^ BBC NEWS | Health | Healthy diet 'cuts dementia risk'
  23. ^ Drivers with dementia a growing problem, MDs warn, CBC News, Canada, September 19, 2007

External links

GPnotebook is a British medical database for General practitioners (GPs eMedicine is an online clinical medical knowledge base that was founded in 1996 by Scott Plantz and Richard Lavely two medical doctors MedlinePlus, with the MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, is a website network containing Health information from the world's largest medical Library The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, often called simply The Merck Manual, is the world's best-selling medical textbook

Dictionary

dementia

-noun

  1. (pathology) A progressive decline in cognitive function due to damage or disease in the brain beyond what might be expected from normal aging. Areas particularly affected include memory, attention, judgement, language and problem solving.
  2. madness or insanity
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