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Deism is the belief that there is a God that created the physical universe but does not interfere with it. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Henotheism ( Greek heis theos "one god" is a term coined by Max Müller, to mean devotion to a Single god while accepting For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Panentheism (from Greek (pân "all" (en "in" and (Theós "God" "all-in-God" is a belief system Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All Monolatrism or monolatry ( Greek: μόνος ( monos) = single and λατρεία ( latreia) = Worship) is the recognition of the existence See also God Conceptions of God can vary widely despite the use of the same term for them all The English word god continues the Old English ang god ( got-Latn guþ gudis in Gothic, gem gud in modern Arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers theologians and others The gender of God can be viewed as either a literal or an allegorical aspect of a deity A creator deity is a Deity in a Creation myth responsible for the creation of the World (or Universe) The Great Architect of the Universe (also Grand Architect of the Universe or Supreme Architect of the Universe) is a conception of God discussed by many Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos God the Sustainer is a theological term referring to the concept of a God who sustains and upholds everything in existence God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. Monad (from Greek μονάς monas, "unit" monos, "alone" which according to the Pythagoreans, was a term for God Oneness is a spiritual term referring to the 'experience' of the absence of egoic identity boundaries and according to some traditions the perception of an absolute The term Supreme Being is often defined simply as " God " and it is used with this meaning by theologians of many religious faiths including but not limited to The All (also called The One The Absolute, The Great One The Creator The Supreme Mind The Supreme Good The The expression Personal God, refers to the belief that God is - and can be related to as - a Person. Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных Omniscience (ɒm'nɪsɪəns (or Omniscient Point-of-View in writing is the capacity to know everything infinitely or at least everything that can be known about a character Omnipotence ( Omni Potens: "all Power " is unlimited power Omnipresence is the ability to be present in every place at any and/or every time unbounded or universal presence Omnibenevolence is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "unlimited or infinite Benevolence " Bahá'ís believe in a single, imperishable God, the creator of all things including all the creatures and forces in the universe Since the time of the Buddha the refutation of the existence of a creator has been seen as a key point in distinguishing Buddhist from non-Buddhist views The term "Godhead" The term Godhead is a term denoting deity or divinity In Hinduism the concept of God is complex and depends on a particular tradition In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis The conception of God in Judaism is Monotheistic. The God of Israel was known by two principal names in the Bible The fundamental belief of Sikhism is that God exists not merely as an idea or concept but as a Real Entity indescribable yet knowable and perceivable to anyone who is prepared to dedicate Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Fideism is the view that Religious belief relies primarily on Faith or Special revelation, rather than rational inference or observation Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Hermeticism is a set of philosophical and religious beliefs based primarily upon the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, who is put forth as a Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part A God complex is a psychological state of mind in which a person believes that they have supernatural powers or god-like abilities Neurotheology The Euthyphro dilemma is found in Plato's dialogue Euthyphro, in which Socrates asks Euthyphro "Is the pious ( τὸ ὅσιον In the Philosophy of religion and Theology, the problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of Evil or Suffering in the world Theodicy (θiːˈɒdɪsi (adjectival form theodicean) is a specific branch of Theology and Philosophy that attempts to reconcile the existence of It is related to a religious philosophy and movement that derives the existence and nature of God from reason. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language (The mention of God in this article is meant more as a Creator than as the Abrahamic God. ) It takes no position on what God may do outside the universe. That is in contrast to fideism which is found in many forms of Christianity. Fideism is the view that Religious belief relies primarily on Faith or Special revelation, rather than rational inference or observation Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[1] Islamic and Judaic teachings hold that religion relies on revelation in sacred scriptures or the testimony of other people as well as reasoning. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Deists often use the analogy of God as watchmaker. A watchmaker is an Artisan who makes and repairs Watches A modern watchmaker is more likely to repair a wristwatch or a pocketwatch than to actually create a watch

Deists typically reject supernatural events (prophecy, miracles) and tend to assert that God does not intervene with the affairs of human life and the natural laws of the universe. This is a partial list of people who have been categorized as deists, the belief in a God based on natural religion only or belief in religious What organized religions see as divine revelation and holy books, most deists see as interpretations made by other humans, rather than as authoritative sources. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Deists believe that God's greatest gift to humanity is not religion, but the ability to reason.

Deism became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Age of Enlightenment, especially in the United Kingdom, France and the United States, mostly among those raised as Christians who found they could not believe in either a triune God, the divinity of Jesus, miracles, or the inerrancy of scriptures, but who did believe in one God. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных Divinity and divine (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine' are broadly applied but loosely defined terms used variously within different faiths and belief systems — Biblical inerrancy is the conservative evangelical doctrinal position that in its original form the Bible is totally without error and free from all contradiction For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Initially it did not form any congregations, but in time deism led to the development of other religious groups, such as Unitarianism, which later developed into Unitarian Universalism. Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God Unitarian Universalism ( UUism) is a theologically liberal Religion characterized by its support for a "free and responsible search for truth It continues to this day in the form of classical deism and modern deism.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Features of deism 2.1 Critical and constructive deism 2.2 Concepts of "reason" 2.3 Arguments for the existence of God 2.4 History of religion and the deist mission 2.5 Freedom and necessity 2.6 Beliefs about immortality of the soul 2.7 Deist terminology 3 Historical background 3.1 The discovery of diversity 3.2 Religious conflict 3.3 Advances in scientific knowledge 4 The history of deism 4.1 Precursors of deism 4.2 Early deism 4.3 John Locke 4.4 The rise of British deism (1690–1740) 4.5 Matthew Tindal 4.6 David Hume 4.7 Continental European deism 4.8 Deism in the United States 4.9 The decline of deism 5 Deism today 6 Modern deistic organizations and websites 7 Subcategories of deism 7.1 Pandeism 7.2 Panendeism 8 Opinions on prayer 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External links 12.1 Informational links 12.2 Early history of deism 12.3 Works by Thomas Paine 12.4 Deism advocacy on the web

Overview

Deism is a sub-category of theism, in that both entail belief in a deity. Theism, in its most inclusive usage is the belief in at least one Deity. See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Like theism, deism is a basic belief upon which religions can be built. In contrast to theism, there are currently no established deistic religions, with the possible exception of Unitarian Universalism and Confucianism. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B The concept of deism covers a wide variety of positions on a wide variety of religious issues. See the section Features of deism, below. Deism can also refer to a personal set of beliefs having to do with the role of nature in spirituality.

Conversely, Deism can be a belief in deity absent any doctrinal governance or precise definition of the nature of such deity. Deism can be similar to naturalism. Therefore, Deism will often give credit to the formation of life and universe to a higher power that by design allows only natural processes to govern creation.

The words deism and theism are both derived from the word god:

• The root of the word deism is the Latin word deus, which means "god". Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. DeuS (Brut Des Flandres is a premium Belgian beer manufactured in Buggenhout, Belgium.
• The root of the word theism is the Greek word theos (θεός), which also means "god". Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

Prior to the 17th century the terms ["Deism" and "Deist"] were used interchangeably with the terms "theism" and "theist", respectively. . . . Theologians and philosophers of the seventeenth century began to give a different signification to the words. . . . Both [theists and Deists] asserted belief in one supreme God, the Creator. . . . and agreed that God is personal and distinct from the world. But the theist taught that god remained actively interested in and operative in the world which he had made, whereas the Deist maintained that God endowed the world at creation with self-sustaining and self-acting powers and then abandoned it to the operation of these powers acting as second causes. ^[2]

A helpful discussion of deism, theism, and other positions on divine beings can be found in the theism article. Theism, in its most inclusive usage is the belief in at least one Deity.

Perhaps the first use of the term deist is in Pierre Viret's Instruction Chrétienne en la doctrine de la foy et de l'Évangile (Christian teaching on the doctrine of faith and the Gospel) (1564), reprinted in Bayle's Dictionnaire entry Viret. Pierre Viret ( Orbe 1511 - Orthez 1571 was a Swiss reformed theologian. Pierre Bayle ( November 18, 1647 December 28, 1706) was a French Philosopher and writer Viret, a Calvinist, regarded deism as a new form of Italian heresy. Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the ^[3] Viret wrote:

There are many who confess that while they believe like the Turks and the Jews that there is some sort of God and some sort of deity, yet with regard to Jesus Christ and to all that to which the doctrine of the Evangelists and the Apostles testify, they take all that to be fables and dreams. . . . I have heard that there are of this band those who call themselves Deists, an entirely new word, which they want to oppose to Atheist. For in that atheist signifies a person who is without God, they want to make it understood that they are not at all without God, since they certainly believe there is some sort of God, whom they even recognize as creator of heaven and earth, as do the Turks; but as for Jesus Christ, they only know that he is and hold nothing concerning him nor his doctrine.

In England, the term deist first appeared in Robert Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621). Robert Burton may refer to Robert Burton Sr (21st century printing industry executive Robert Burton (athlete (born 1885 British ^[4]

Lord Herbert of Cherbury (d. Edward Herbert 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury ( March 3, 1583 &ndash August 20, 1648) was a British soldier Diplomat 1648) is generally considered the "father of English deism", and his book De Veritate (1624) the first major statement of deism. Deism flourished in England between 1690 and 1740, at which time Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730), or 'the Deist's Bible', gained much attention. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author Later deism spread to France, notably via the work of Voltaire, to Germany, and to America. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French

Features of deism

Critical and constructive deism

The concept of deism covers a wide variety of positions on a wide variety of religious issues. Following Sir Leslie Stephen's English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, most commentators agree that two features constituted the core of deism:

• The rejection of revealed religion — this was the critical aspect of deism. Sir Leslie Stephen, KCB (28 November 1832 &ndash 22 February 1904 was an English author critic and mountaineer and the father of Virginia Woolf and Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication
• The belief that reason, not faith, leads us to certain basic religious truths — this was the positive or constructive aspect of deism.

Deist authors advocated a combination of both critical and constructive elements in proportions and emphases that varied from author to author.

Critical elements of deist thought included:

• Rejection of all religions based on books that claim to contain the revealed word of God.
• Rejection of reports of miracles, prophecies and religious "mysteries".
• Rejection of the Genesis account of creation and the doctrine of original sin, along with all similar beliefs. Original sin is according to a doctrine in Catholic theology, humanity's state of Sin resulting from the Fall of Man.
• Rejection of Judaism, Christianity, Islam and other religious beliefs.

Constructive elements of deist thought included:

• God exists, created and governs the universe.
• God wants human beings to behave morally.
• Human beings have souls that survive death; that is, there is an afterlife.

Specific thoughts on aspects of the afterlife will vary. While there are those who maintain that a God will punish or reward us according to our behavior on Earth, likewise there are those who assert that any punishment or reward that is due to us is given during our mortal stay on Earth. Some do not believe in an afterlife.

Individual deists varied in the set of critical and constructive elements for which they argued. Some deists rejected miracles and prophecies but still considered themselves Christians because they believed in what they felt to be the pure, original form of Christianity — that is, Christianity as it existed before it was corrupted by additions of such superstitions as miracles, prophecies, and the doctrine of the Trinity. Some deists rejected the claim of Jesus' divinity but continued to hold him in high regard as a moral teacher (see, e. g. , Thomas Jefferson's famous Jefferson Bible and Matthew Tindal's 'Christianity as Old as the Creation'). Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The Jefferson Bible, or The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth as it is formally titled was Thomas Jefferson's effort to extract the doctrine Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author Other, more radical deists rejected Christianity altogether and expressed hostility toward Christianity, which they regarded as pure superstition. In return, Christian writers often charged radical deists with atheism. Atheism

Note that the terms constructive and critical are used to refer to aspects of deistic thought, not sects or subtypes of deism — it would be incorrect to classify any particular deist author as "a constructive deist" or "a critical deist". As Peter Gay notes:

All Deists were in fact both critical and constructive Deists. All sought to destroy in order to build, and reasoned either from the absurdity of Christianity to the need for a new philosophy or from their desire for a new philosophy to the absurdity of Christianity. Each Deist, to be sure, had his special competence. While one specialized in abusing priests, another specialized in rhapsodies to nature, and a third specialized in the skeptical reading of sacred documents. Yet whatever strength the movement had— and it was at times formidable— it derived that strength from a peculiar combination of critical and constructive elements.

– Peter Gay, Deism: An Anthology, p. 13

It should be noted, however, that the constructive element of deism was not unique to deism. It was the same as the natural theology that was so prevalent in all English theology in the 17th and 18th centuries. Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world What set deists apart from their more orthodox contemporaries was their critical concerns.

Defining the essence of English Deism is a formidable task. Like priestcraft, atheism, and freethinking, Deism was one of the dirty words of the age. Deists were stigmatized — often as atheists — by their Christian opponents. Yet some Deists claimed to be Christian, and as Leslie Stephen argued in retrospect, the Deists shared so many fundamental rational suppositions with their orthodox opponents. . . that it is practically impossible to distinguish between them. But the term Deism is nevertheless a meaningful one. . . . Too many men of letters of the time agree about the essential nature of English Deism for modern scholars to ignore the simple fact that what sets the Deists apart from even their most latitudinarian Christian contemporaries is their desire to lay aside scriptural revelation as rationally incomprehensible, and thus useless, or even detrimental, to human society and to religion. Latitudinarian was initially a pejorative term applied to a group of 17th-century English Theologians who believed in conforming to official Church of England While there may possibly be exceptions, . . . most Deists, especially as the eighteenth century wears on, agree that revealed Scripture is nothing but a joke or "well-invented flam. " About mid-century, John Leland, in his historical and analytical account of the movement [View of the Principal Deistical Writers], squarely states that the rejection of revealed Scripture is the characteristic element of Deism, a view further codified by such authorities as Ephraim Chambers and Samuel Johnson. John Leland (1691 - 1766 was an English Presbyterian minister and author of theological works Ephraim Chambers (c 1680 - 15 May 1740) was an English writer and Encyclopedist, who is primarily known for producing the Cyclopaedia Samuel Johnson (often referred to as Dr Johnson) (18 September . . . "DEISM," writes Stephens bluntly, "is a denial of all reveal'd Religion. William Dennison Stephens ( December 26, 1859 April 25, 1944) was an American federal and state politician "

– James E. Force, Introduction (1990) to An Account of the Growth of Deism in England (1696) by William Stephens

One of the remarkable features of deism is that the critical elements did not overpower the constructive elements. As E. Graham Waring observed,^[5] "A strange feature of the [Deist] controversy is the apparent acceptance of all parties of the conviction of the existence of God. " And Basil Willey observed^[6]

M. Paul Hazard has recently described the Deists of this time 'as rationalists with nostalgia for religion': men, that is, who had allowed the spirit of the age to separate them from orthodoxy, but who liked to believe that the slope they had started upon was not slippery enough to lead them to atheism.

Concepts of "reason"

"Reason" was the ultimate court of appeal for deists. Tindal presents a Lockean definition of reason, self-evident truth, and the light of nature:

By the rational faculties, then, we mean the natural ability a man has to apprehend, judge, and infer: The immediate objects of which faculties are not the things themselves, but the ideas the mind conceives of them. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. . . . Knowledge [is]. . . the perception of the agreement or disagreement of our ideas. And any two of these, when joined together so as to be affirmed or denied of each other, make what we call a proposition. . . Knowledge accrues either immediately on the bare intuition of these two ideas or terms so joined, and is therefore styled intuitive knowledge or self-evident truth, or by the intervention of some other idea or ideas . . . . . . this is called demonstrative knowledge. . . If there were not some propositions which need not to be proved, it would be in vain for men to argue with one another [because there would be no basis for demonstrative reasoning] . . . Those propositions which need no proof, we call self-evident; because by comparing the ideas signified by the terms of such propositions, we immediately discern their agreement, or disagreement: This is, as I said before, what we call intuitive knowledge. . . . [Intuitive knowledge] may, I think, be called divine inspiration as being immediately from God, and not acquired by any human deduction or drawing of consequences: This, certainly, is that divine, that uniform light, which shines in the minds of all men. . .

– Matthew Tindal, Christianity as Old as the Creation (II)^[7]

Deists did appeal to "the light of nature" to support the self-evident nature of their positive religious claims.

By natural religion, I understand the belief of the existence of a God, and the sense and practice of those duties which result from the knowledge we, by our reason, have of him and his perfections; and of ourselves, and our own imperfections, and of the relationship we stand in to him, and to our fellow-creatures; so that the religion of nature takes in everything that is founded on the reason and nature of things. I suppose you will allow that it is evident by the light of nature that there is a God, or in other words, a being absolutely perfect, and infinitely happy in himself, who is the source of all other beings. . . .

– Matthew Tindal, Christianity as Old as the Creation (II)^[8]

Once a proposition is asserted to be a self-evident truth, there is not much more to say about it. Consequently, deist authors attempted to use reason as a critical tool for exposing and rejecting what they saw as nonsense. Here are two typical examples. The first is from John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious. John Toland ( November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) was an Irish Philosopher. ^[9]

I hope to make it appear that the use of reason is not so dangerous in religion as it is commonly represented. . . . There is nothing that men make a greater noise about than the "mysteries of the Christian religion. " The divines gravely tell us "we must adore what we cannot comprehend. " Some of them say the "mysteries of the Gospel" are to be understood only in the sense of the "ancient fathers. " . . . [Some] contend [that] some mysteries may be, or at least seem to be, contrary to reason, and yet received by faith. [Others contend] that no mystery is contrary to reason, but that all are "above" it. ^[10] On the contrary, we hold that reason is the only foundation of all certitude, and that nothing revealed, whether as to its manner or existence, is more exempted from its disquisitions than the ordinary phenomena of nature. Wherefore, we likewise maintain, according to the title of this discourse, that there is nothing in the Gospel contrary to reason, nor above it; and that no Christian doctrine can be properly called a mystery. . . . Now, as we are extremely subject to deception, we may without some infallible rule, often take a questionable proposition for an axiom, old wives' fables for moral certitude, and human impostures for divine revelation. . . . I take it to be very intelligible from the precedent section that what is evidently repugnant to clear and distinct ideas,^[11] or to our common notions,^[12] is contrary to reason. . . . No Christian that I know of expressly says reason and the Gospel are contrary to one another. But very many affirm that . . . according to our conceptions of them [i. e. reason and the Gospel] they seem directly to clash. And that though we cannot reconcile them by reason of our corrupt and limited understandings, yet that from the authority of divine revelation we are bound to believe and acquiesce in them; or, as the fathers taught them to speak, to "adore what we cannot comprehend. " This famous and admirable doctrine is the undoubted source of all the absurdities that ever were seriously vented among Christians. Without the pretense of it, we should never hear of transubstantiation, and other ridiculous fables of the Church of Rome. See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence. Nor should we be ever bantered with the Lutheran impanation. Impanation is a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist. . . . The first thing I shall insist upon is that if any doctrine of the New Testament be contrary to reason, we have no manner of idea of it. To say, for instance, that a ball is white and black at once is to say just nothing, for these colors are so incompatible in the same subject as to exclude all possibility of a real positive idea or conception. So to say as the papists that children dying before baptism are damned without pain signifies nothing at all. See also Intermediate state Purgatory|Heaven|Sheol|Hades in Christianity|Hell in Christianity In Roman Catholic theology Limbo (Latin limbus

– John Toland, Christianity Not Mysterious: or, a Treatise Shewing That There Is Nothing in the Gospel Contrary to Reason, Nor above It (1696)

I have known some, who have alleged as a reason why they have forsaken the Christian faith, the impossibility of believing. Many doctrines (say these) are made necessary to salvation, which 'tis impossible to believe, because they are in their nature absurdities. I replied, that these things were mysteries, and so above our understanding. But he asked me to what end could an unintelligible doctrine be revealed? not to instruct, but to puzzle and amuse. What can be the effect of an unintelligible mystery upon our minds, but only an amusement? That which is only above reason must be above a rational belief, and must I be saved by an irrational belief? . . . You all agree that the belief of your Trinity is absolutely necessary to salvation, and yet widely differ in what we must believe concerning it; whether three Minds or Modes, or Properties, or internal Relations, or Oeconomies, or Manifestations, or external Denominations; or else no more than a Holy Three, or Three Somewhats. SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных . . If I should be persuaded that an explanation of the Trinity were necessary to save my soul, and see the Learned so widely differing and hotly disputing what it is I must believe concerning it, I should certainly run mad through despair of finding out the Truth. . .

– William Stephens, An Account of the Growth of Deism in England (1696), pp. 19-20

Arguments for the existence of God

Thomas Hobbes - an early deist and important influence on subsequent deists - used the cosmological argument for the existence of God at several places in his writings. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation The cosmological argument is an Argument for the Existence of God or a " First Cause "

The effects we acknowledge naturally, do include a power of their producing, before they were produced; and that power presupposeth something existent that hath such power; and the thing so existing with power to produce, if it were not eternal, must needs have been produced by somewhat before it, and that again by something else before that, till we come to an eternal, that is to say, the first power of all powers and first cause of all causes; and this is it which all men conceive by the name of God, implying eternity, incomprehensibility, and omnipotence.

– Thomas Hobbes, Works, vol. 4, pp. 59-60; quoted in John Orr, English Deism, p. 76

History of religion and the deist mission

Most deists saw the religions of their day as corruptions of an original, pure religion that was simple and rational. They felt that this original pure religion had become corrupted by "priests" who had manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood in general.

According to this world view, over time "priests" had succeeded in encrusting the original simple, rational religion with all kinds of superstitions and "mysteries" — irrational theological doctrines. Laymen were told by the priests that only the priests really knew what was necessary for salvation and that laymen must accept the "mysteries" on faith and on the priests' authority. This kept the laity baffled by the nonsensical "mysteries", confused, and dependent on the priests for information about the requirements for salvation. The priests consequently enjoyed a position of considerable power over the laity, which they strove to maintain and increase. Deists referred to this kind of manipulation of religious doctrine as "priestcraft", a highly derogatory term.

Deists saw their mission as the stripping away of "priestcraft" and "mysteries" from religion, thereby restoring religion to its original, true condition — simple and rational. In many cases, they considered true, original Christianity to be the same as this original natural religion. As Matthew Tindal put it:

It can't be imputed to any defect in the light of nature that the pagan world ran into idolatry, but to their being entirely governed by priests, who pretended communication with their gods, and to have thence their revelations, which they imposed on the credulous as divine oracles. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author Whereas the business of the Christian dispensation was to destroy all those traditional revelations, and restore, free from all idolatry, the true primitive and natural religion implanted in mankind from the creation.

– Matthew Tindal, Christianity as Old as the Creation (XIV)^[13]

One implication of this deist creation myth was that primitive societies, or societies that existed in the distant past, should have religious beliefs that are less encrusted with superstitions and closer to those of natural theology. A creation myth is a supernatural mytho-[[religion religious]] story or explanation that describes the beginnings of humanity, Earth, life, and Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world This became a point of attack for thinkers such as David Hume as they studied the "natural history of religion". David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy

Freedom and necessity

Enlightenment thinkers, under the influence of Newtonian science, tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being, that continues to operate according to natural law, without any divine intervention. This view naturally led to what was then usually called necessitarianism: the view that everything in the universe - including human behavior - is completely causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. Necessitarianism is a metaphysical principle that denies all mere possibility there is exactly one way for the world to be (See, e. g. , La Mettrie's L'Homme machine. Julien Offray de La Mettrie ( December 25, 1709 - November 11, 1751) was a French Physician and Philosopher, the ) As a consequence, debates about freedom versus determinism were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions. Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined

Because of their high regard for natural law and for the idea of a universe without miracles, deists were especially susceptible to the temptations of necessitarianism. Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among deists about freedom and necessity. Some, such as Anthony Collins, actually were necessitarians. Anthony Collins ( June 21, 1676, Old Style - December 13, 1729, Old Style) was an English philosopher and a

Beliefs about immortality of the soul

Deists held a variety of beliefs about the soul. Some, such as Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollastson,^[14] held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life. Edward Herbert 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury ( March 3, 1583 &ndash August 20, 1648) was a British soldier Diplomat William Wollaston ( 26 March 1659 – 29 October 1724) was an English philosophical writer Some, such as Benjamin Franklin, believed in reincarnation or resurrection. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Others such as Thomas Paine were agnostic about the immortality of the soul:

I trouble not myself about the manner of future existence. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Agnosticism ( Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge after Gnosticism) is the philosophical view that the I content myself with believing, even to positive conviction, that the power that gave me existence is able to continue it, in any form and manner he pleases, either with or without this body; and it appears more probable to me that I shall continue to exist hereafter than that I should have had existence, as I now have, before that existence began.

– Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason, Part I, Recapitulation

Still others such as Anthony Collins,^[15] Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists and either denied or doubted the immortality of the soul. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American Anthony Collins ( June 21, 1676, Old Style - December 13, 1729, Old Style) was an English philosopher and a Henry St John 1st Viscount Bolingbroke ( 16 September 1678 &ndash 12 December 1751) was an English politician and philosopher Thomas Chubb, ( September 29 1679 &ndash February 8 1747) was an English Deist, born near Salisbury. Peter Annet (1693– 18 January 1769) was an English deist. Annet is said to have been born at Liverpool. ^[16]

Deist terminology

Deist authors - and 17th- and 18th-century theologians in general - referred to God using a variety of vivid circumlocutions such as:

• Supreme Being
• Divine Watchmaker
• Grand Architect of the Universe
• Nature's God — used in the United States Declaration of Independence
• Father of Lights — Benjamin Franklin used this terminology when proposing that meetings of the Constitutional Convention begin with prayers ^[17]

Historical background

Deistic thinking has existed since ancient times (e. The term Supreme Being is often defined simply as " God " and it is used with this meaning by theologians of many religious faiths including but not limited to The watchmaker analogy, or watchmaker Argument, is a Teleological argument for the Existence of God. The Great Architect of the Universe (also Grand Architect of the Universe or Supreme Architect of the Universe) is a conception of God discussed by many The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the " Grand Convention at Philadelphia g. , in philosophers such as Heraclitus and most especially Plato, who envisaged God as the Demiurge or 'craftsman') and in many cultures. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos The word deism is generally used to refer to the movement toward natural theology or freethinking that occurred in 17th-century Europe, and specifically in Britain. Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world Freethought is a philosophical viewpoint that holds that Beliefs should be formed on the basis of Science and Logic and should not be influenced

Natural theology is a facet of the revolution in world view that occurred in Europe in the 17th century. Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world To understand the background to that revolution is also to understand the background of deism. Several cultural movements of the time contributed to the movement. ^[18]

The discovery of diversity

The humanist tradition of the Renaissance included a revival of interest in Europe's classical past in Greece and Rome. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere With study of the past came a growing awareness that the world in which the classical authors lived was quite different from the present.

In addition, study of classical documents led to the realization that some historical documents are less reliable than others, which led to the beginnings of biblical criticism. This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document In particular, when scholars worked on biblical manuscripts, they began developing the principles of textual criticism and a view of the New Testament being the product of a particular historical period different from their own.

In addition to discovering diversity in the past, Europeans discovered diversity in the present. The voyages of discovery of the 16th and 17th centuries acquainted Europeans with new and different cultures in the Americas, in Asia, and in the Pacific. They discovered a greater amount of cultural diversity than they had ever imagined, and the question arose of how this vast amount of human cultural diversity could be compatible with the biblical account of Noah's descendants. In particular, the ideas of Confucius, translated into European languages by the Jesuits stationed in China, are thought to have had considerable influence on the deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity. Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[19]. ^[20]

In particular, cultural diversity with respect to religious beliefs could no longer be ignored. Like Herbert wrote in De Religione Laici (1645),

Many faiths or religions, clearly, exist or once existed in various countries and ages, and certainly there is not one of them that the lawgivers have not pronounced to be as it were divinely ordained, so that the Wayfarer finds one in Europe, another in Africa, and in Asia, still another in the very Indies.

This new awareness of diversity led to a feeling that Christianity was just one religion among many, with no better claim than any other to correctness.

Religious conflict

Europe had been plagued by vicious sectarian conflicts and religious wars since the beginning of the Reformation. Sectarianism is Bigotry, Discrimination, Prejudice or Hatred arising from attaching importance to perceived differences between subdivisions A religious war is a War caused by religious differences It can involve one state with an established religion against another state with a different religion or a different The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time In 1642, when Lord Herbert of Cherbury's De Veritate was published, the Thirty Years War had been raging on continental Europe for nearly 25 years. Edward Herbert 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury ( March 3, 1583 &ndash August 20, 1648) was a British soldier Diplomat For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. It was an enormously destructive religious war that (it is estimated) destroyed 15–20% of the population of Germany. At the same time, the English Civil War pitting King against Parliament was just beginning. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists.

Such massive sectarian violence inspired a visceral rejection of the sectarianism that had led to the violence. It also led to a search for natural religious truths — truths that could be universally accepted, because they had been either "written in the book of Nature" or "engraved on the human mind" by God.

Deism also had a great connection to religious tolerance.

Advances in scientific knowledge

The 17th century saw a remarkable advance in scientific knowledge: the scientific revolution. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo destroyed the old notion that the earth was the center of the universe and showed that the universe was incredibly larger than ever imagined. Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher These discoveries posed a serious challenge to biblical authority and to the religious authorities, Galileo's condemnation for heresy being an especially visible example. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher In consequence, the Bible came to be seen as authoritative on matters of faith and morals but no longer authoritative (or meant to be) on matters of science.

Isaac Newton's discovery of universal gravitation explained the behavior both of objects here on earth and of objects in the heavens. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements It promoted a world view in which the natural universe is controlled by laws of nature. This, in turn, suggested a theology in which God created the universe, set it in motion controlled by natural law, and retired from the scene. (See the Watchmaker analogy. The watchmaker analogy, or watchmaker Argument, is a Teleological argument for the Existence of God. )

The new awareness of the explanatory power of universal natural law also produced a growing skepticism about such religious staples as miracles (i. A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation e. , violations of natural law) and about books, such as the Bible, that reported them.

Whereas the Age of Faith found its truths in religious tradition, the Age of Reason found its truths in observable natural phenomena and individual human reason. 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach

The history of deism

Precursors of deism

Early works of biblical criticism, such as Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan and Spinoza's Theologico-Political Treatise, as well as works by lesser-known authors such as Richard Simon and Isaac La Peyrère, paved the way for the development of critical deism. This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation Leviathan or The Matter Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, commonly called Leviathan, is a book written by Thomas Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Written by the philosopher and Pantheist Baruch Spinoza, the Theologico-Political Treatise or Tractatus Theologico-Politicus Richard Simon ( 13 May 1638 - 11 April 1712) was a French biblical Critic. Isaac La Peyrère, or Pererius, (1596-1676 was a French Millenarian and formulator of Pre-Adamite theory

Early deism

Lord Herbert of Cherbury (d. Isaac Oliver (c 1565 &ndash bur October 2, 1617) was a French -born English Portrait miniature painter Edward Herbert 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury ( March 3, 1583 &ndash August 20, 1648) was a British soldier Diplomat 1648) is generally considered the "father of English deism", and his book De Veritate (On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False) (1624) the first major statement of deism. ^[21][22]

Like his contemporary Descartes, Herbert searched for the foundations of knowledge. In fact, the first two thirds of De Veritate are devoted to an exposition of Herbert's theory of knowledge. Herbert distinguished truths obtained through experience, and through reasoning about experience, from innate truths and from revealed truths. Innate truths are imprinted on our minds, and the evidence that they are so imprinted is that they are universally accepted. Herbert's term for universally accepted truths was notitiae communes — common notions.

In the realm of religion, Herbert believed that there were five common notions.

• There is one Supreme God.
• He ought to be worshipped.
• Virtue and piety are the chief parts of divine worship.
• We ought to be sorry for our sins and repent of them
• Divine goodness doth dispense rewards and punishments both in this life and after it.

– Lord Herbert of Cherbury, The Antient Religion of the Gentiles, and Causes of Their Errors, pp. 3–4, quoted in John Orr, English Deism, p. 62

It is worth quoting Herbert at some length, to give the flavor of his writing. A sense of the importance that Herbert attributed to innate Common Notions will help in understanding how devastating Locke's attack on innate ideas was for Herbert's philosophy.

No general agreement exists concerning the Gods, but there is universal recognition of God. Every religion in the past has acknowledged, every religion in the future will acknowledge, some sovereign deity among the Gods. . . . Accordingly that which is everywhere accepted as the supreme manifestation of deity, by whatever name it may be called, I term God. While there is no general agreement concerning the worship of Gods, sacred beings, saints, and angels, yet the Common Notion or Universal Consent tells us that adoration ought to be reserved for the one God. Hence divine religion— and no race, however savage, has existed without some expession of it— is found established among all nations. . . . The connection of Virtue with Piety, defined in this work as the right conformation of the faculties, is and always has been held to be, the most important part of religious practice. There is no general agreement concerning rites, ceremonies, traditions. . . ; but there is the greatest possible consensus of opinion concerning the right conformation of the faculties. . . . Moral virtue. . . is and always has been esteemed by men in every age and place and respected in every land. . . There is no general agreement concerning the various rites or mysteries which the priests have devised for the expiation of sin. . . . General agreement among religions, the nature of divine goodness, and above all conscience, tell us that our crimes may be washed away by true penitence, and that we can be restored to new union with God. . . . I do not wish to consider here whether any other more appropriate means exists by which the divine justice may be appeased, since I have undertaken in this work only to rely on truths which are not open to dispute but are derived from the evidence of immediate perception and admitted by the whole world. . . . The rewards that are eternal have been variously placed in heaven, in the stars, in the Elysian fields. In Greek mythology, Elysium ( Greek:) was a section of the Underworld (the spelling Elysium is a Latinization of the . . Punishment has been thought to lie in metempsychosis, in hell,. Reincarnation Metempsychosis is a philosophical term in the Greek language referring to the belief of Transmigration of the soul, especially its Reincarnation . . or in temporary or everlasting death. But all religion, law, philosophy, and . . . conscience, teach openly or implicitly that punishment or reward awaits us after this life. . . . [T]here is no nation, however barbarous, which has not and will not recognise the existence of punishments and rewards. That reward and punishment exist is, then, a Common Notion, though there is the greatest difference of opinion as to their nature, quality, extent, and mode. . . . It follows from these considerations that the dogmas which recognize a sovereign Deity, enjoin us to worship Him, command us to live a holy life, lead us to repent our sins, and warn us of future recompense or punishment, proceed from God and are inscribed within us in the form of Common Notions. . . . Revealed truth exists; and it would be unjust to ignore it. But its nature is quite distinct from the truth [based on Common Notions] . . . [T]he truth of revelation depends upon the authority of him who reveals it. We must, then, proceed with great care in discerning what actually is revealed. . . . [W]e must take great care to avoid deception, for men who are depressed, superstitious, or ignorant of causes are always liable to it. . . .

– Lord Herbert of Cherbury , De Veritate, quoted in Gay, Deism: An Anthology, pp. 29 ff.

According to Gay, Herbert had relatively few followers, and it was not until the 1680s that Herbert found a true successor in Charles Blount (1654–1693). Charles Blount ( April 27, 1654 – August 1693 was a British deist and controversialist Blount made one special contribution to the deist debate: "by utilizing his wide classical learning, Blount demonstrated how to use pagan writers, and pagan ideas, against Christianity. . . . Other Deists were to follow his lead. "^[23]

John Locke

The publication of John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689, but dated 1690) marks a major turning point in the history of deism. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Since Herbert's De Veritate, innate ideas had been the foundation of deist epistemology. Innatism is a philosophical doctrine that holds that the mind is born with ideas/knowledge and that therefore the mind is not a ' Blank slate ' at birth as early empiricists Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Locke's famous attack on innate ideas in the first book of the Essay effectively destroyed that foundation and replaced it with a theory of knowledge based on experience. Innatist deism was replaced by empiricist deism.

Locke himself was not a deist. He believed in both miracles and revelation, and he regarded miracles as the main proof of revelation. ^[24]

After Locke, constructive deism could no longer appeal to innate ideas for justification of its basic tenets such as the existence of God. Instead, under the influence of Locke and Newton, deists turned to natural theology and to arguments based on experience and Nature: the cosmological argument and the argument from design. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world The cosmological argument is an Argument for the Existence of God or a " First Cause " A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an Argument for the Existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order purpose design

The rise of British deism (1690–1740)

Peter Gay places the zenith of deism "from the end of the 1690s, when the vehement response to John Toland's Christianity Not Mysterious (1696) started the deist debate, to the end of the 1740s when the tepid response to Middleton's Free Inquiry signalized its close. John Toland ( November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) was an Irish Philosopher. Conyers Middleton ( December 27, 1683 - July 28, 1750) was an English clergyman "^[25]

Among the Deists, only Anthony Collins (1676–1729) could claim much philosophical competence; only Conyers Middleton (1683–1750) was a really serious scholar. Anthony Collins ( June 21, 1676, Old Style - December 13, 1729, Old Style) was an English philosopher and a Conyers Middleton ( December 27, 1683 - July 28, 1750) was an English clergyman The best known Deists, notably John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733), were talented publicists, clear without being deep, forceful but not subtle. John Toland ( November 30, 1670 - March 11, 1722) was an Irish Philosopher. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author . . . Others, like Thomas Chubb (1679–1747), were self-educated freethinkers; a few, like Thomas Woolston (1669–1731), were close to madness. Thomas Chubb, ( September 29 1679 &ndash February 8 1747) was an English Deist, born near Salisbury. Thomas Woolston (baptised November 1668 - January 27, 1733) English Deist, born at Northampton in 1668 the son of a reputable

– Peter Gay, Deism: An Anthology^[25]

Other prominent British deists included William Wollastson, Charles Blount, Shaftesbury (who did not think of himself as a deist, but shared so many attitudes with deists that Gay calls him "a Deist in fact, if not in name"^[26]) and Bolingbroke. William Wollaston ( 26 March 1659 – 29 October 1724) was an English philosophical writer Charles Blount ( April 27, 1654 – August 1693 was a British deist and controversialist Anthony Ashley Cooper 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury ( February 26, 1671 &ndash February 4, 1713) was an English Politician, Henry St John 1st Viscount Bolingbroke ( 16 September 1678 &ndash 12 December 1751) was an English politician and philosopher

After the writings of Woolston and Tindal, English Deism went into slow decline. . . . By the 1730s, nearly all the arguments in behalf of Deism . . . had been offered and refined; the intellectual caliber of leading Deists was none too impressive; and the opponents of Deism finally mustered some formidable spokesmen. The Deists of these decades, Peter Annet (1693–1769), Thomas Chubb (1679–1747), and Thomas Morgan (?–1743), are of significance to the specialist alone. Peter Annet (1693– 18 January 1769) was an English deist. Annet is said to have been born at Liverpool. Thomas Chubb, ( September 29 1679 &ndash February 8 1747) was an English Deist, born near Salisbury. Thomas Morgan (d 1743 was an English deist. He was the author of a large three-volume work entitled The Moral Philosopher. . . . It had all been said before, and better. .

– Peter Gay, Deism: An Anthology^[27]

Matthew Tindal

Especially noteworthy is Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation (1730), which "became, very soon after its publication, the focal center of the deist controversy. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author Because almost every argument, quotation, and issue raised for decades can be found here, the work is often termed 'the deist's Bible'. "^[28] Following Locke's successful attack on innate ideas, Tindal's "Deist Bible" redefined the foundation of deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason. This effectively widened the gap between traditional Christians and what he called "Christian Deists", since this new foundation required that "revealed" truth be validated through human reason. In Christianity as Old as the Creation, Tindal articulated a number of the basic tenets of deism:

• He argued against special revelation: "God designed all Mankind should at all times know, what he wills them to know, believe, profess, and practice; and has given them no other Means for this, but the Use of Reason. "

David Hume

The writings of David Hume are sometimes credited with causing or contributing to the decline of deism. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy English deism, however, was already in decline before Hume's works on religion (1757,1779) were published. ^[27] Furthermore, Hume's writings on religion were not very influential at the time that they were published. ^[29]

Nevertheless, modern scholars find it interesting to study the implications of his thoughts for deism.

• Hume's skepticism about miracles makes him a natural ally of deism.

• His skepticism about the validity of natural religion cuts equally against deism and deism's opponents, who were also deeply involved in natural theology. Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world But his famous Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion were not published until 1779, by which time deism had almost vanished in England.

In its implications for deism, the Natural History of Religion (1757) may be Hume's most interesting work. In it, Hume contends that polytheism, not monotheism, was "the first and most ancient religion of mankind". In addition, contends Hume, the psychological basis of religion is not reason, but fear of the unknown.

The primary religion of mankind arises chiefly from an anxious fear of future events; and what ideas will naturally be entertained of invisible, unknown powers, while men lie under dismal apprehensions of any kind, may easily be conceived. Every image of vengeance, severity, cruelty, and malice must occur, and must augment the ghastliness and horror which oppresses the amazed religionist. . . . And no idea of perverse wickedness can be framed, which those terrified devotees do not readily, without scruple, apply to their deity.

– David Hume, The Natural History of Religion, section XIII'

As E. Graham Waring observed:^[30]

The clear reasonableness of natural religion disappeared before a semi-historical look at what can be known about uncivilized man— "a barbarous, necessitous animal," as Hume termed him. Natural religion, if by that term one means the actual religious beliefs and practices of uncivilized peoples, was seen to be a fabric of superstitions. Primitive man was no unspoiled philosopher, clearly seeing the truth of one God. And the history of religion was not, as the deists had implied, retrograde; the widespread phenomenon of superstition was caused less by priestly malice than by man's unreason as he confronted his experience.

Experts dispute whether Hume was a deist, an atheist, or something else. Atheism Hume himself was uncomfortable with the terms deist and atheist, and Hume scholar Paul Russell has argued that the best and safest term for Hume's views is irreligion. Paul Russell is a professor in Philosophy at the University of British Columbia, where he has been teaching since 1987 Irreligion is a lack of religion indifference to religion or hostility to religion

Continental European deism

English deism, in the words of Peter Gay, "travelled well. Nicolas de Largillière ( October 10, 1656 - March 20, 1746) French painter, was born in Paris. . . . As Deism waned in England, it waxed in France and the German states. "^[31]

France had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology in the works of Montaigne, Bayle, and Montesquieu. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (French miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ ( February 28 1533 &ndash September 13 1592) was one of the most influential writers Pierre Bayle ( November 18, 1647 December 28, 1706) was a French Philosopher and writer Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng The most famous of the French deists was Voltaire, who acquired a taste for Newtonian science, and reinforcement of deistic inclinations, during a two-year visit to England starting in 1726. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements

French deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Rousseau. Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) For a short period of time during the French Revolution the Cult of the Supreme Being was the state religion of France. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Cult of the Supreme Being ( French: Culte de l'Être suprême) was a religion based on Deism devised by Maximilien Robespierre, intended to

Kant's identification with deism is controversial. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg An argument in favor of Kant as deist is Alan Wood's "Kant's Deism," in P. Rossi and M. Wreen (eds. ), Kant's Philosophy of Religion Re-examined (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); an argument against Kant as deist is Stephen Palmquist's "Kant's Theistic Solution".

Deism in the United States

In the United States, Enlightenment philosophy (which itself was heavily inspired by deist ideals) played a major role in creating the principle of separation of church and state, expressed in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the United States Bill of Rights that expressly prohibits the United States Congress Founding Fathers who were especially noted for being influenced by such philosophy include Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, and Hugh Williamson. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Cornelius Harnett ( 20 April, 1723 &ndash April 28, 1781) was an American merchant farmer and statesman from Wilmington North Gouverneur Morris ( January 31, 1752 November 6, 1816) was an American statesman who represented Pennsylvania in the Hugh Williamson ( December 5, 1735 &ndash May 22, 1819) was an American politician. Their political speeches show distinct deistic influence. Other notable Founding Fathers may have been more directly deist. These include James Madison, John Adams, possibly Alexander Hamilton, Ethan Allen ^[32] and Thomas Paine (who published The Age of Reason, a treatise that helped to popularize deism throughout America and Europe). James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. Ethan Allen (January 10 1738 – February 12 1789 was an early American revolutionary and guerrilla leader who fought against the Province of New York Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American Elihu Palmer (1764-1806) wrote the "Bible" of American deism in his Principles of Nature (1801) and attempted to organize deism by forming the "Deistical Society of New York. Elihu Palmer (born 1764 died 7 April 1806) was an author and advocate of Deism in the early days of the United States. "

Currently (as of 2008) there is an ongoing controversy in the United States over whether or not the country was founded as a "Christian nation" based on Judeo-Christian ideals. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Judeo-Christian (or Judaeo-Christian, sometimes written as Judæo-Christian) is a term used to describe the body of concepts and values which are thought to be held This has spawned a subsidiary controversy over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians or deists or something in between. ^{[33] [34]} Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the As to whether George Washington was a deist or not, see this Washington Post book review of two books on the subject. For Jefferson's deism, see this article; and for Franklin, see Kerry S. Walters, Benjamin Franklin and His Gods (University of Illinois Press, 1999) and also this except from Benjamin Franklin: An American Life by Walter Isaacson. </ref> However, Benjamin Franklin wrote in his autobiography, "Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist. My arguments perverted some others, particularly Collins and Ralph; but each of them having afterwards wrong'd me greatly without the least compunction, and recollecting Keith's conduct towards me (who was another freethinker) and my own towards Vernon and Miss Read, which at times gave me great trouble, I began to suspect that this doctrine, tho' it might be true, was not very useful. "^{[35] [36]}

The decline of deism

Deism is generally considered to have declined as an influential school of thought by around 1800. It is probably more accurate, however, to say that deism evolved into, and contributed to, other religious movements. The term deist became used rarely, but deist beliefs, ideas, and influences did not. They can be seen in 19th-century liberal British theology and in the rise of Unitarianism, which adopted many of its beliefs and ideas. Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God Even today, there are a significant number of deistic Web sites. Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation

Several factors contributed to a general decline in the popularity of deism, including:

• the rise, growth, and spread of naturalism and materialism, which were atheistic

• the writings of David Hume and Immanuel Kant (and later, Charles Darwin), which increased doubt about the first cause argument and the argument from design, turning many (though not all) potential deists towards atheism or panendeism

• loss of confidence that reason and rationalism could solve all problems

• criticisms of excesses of the French Revolution

• criticisms that deism was not significantly distinct from pantheism and then that pantheism was not significantly different from atheism

• criticisms that freethought would lead inevitably to atheism

• frustration with the determinism implicit in "This is the best of all possible worlds"

• the fact that deism remained a personal philosophy and never became an organized movement (unlike now when we have deistic organizations such as the World Union of Deists)

• an anti-deist and anti-reason campaign by some Christian clergymen to vilify deism and equate it with atheism in public opinion

• Christian revivalist movements which taught that a more personal relationship with a deity was possible

Deism today

Contemporary deism attempts to integrate classical deism with modern philosophy and the current state of scientific knowledge. This article covers metaphysical naturalism as a worldview Naturalism (philosophy discusses methodological naturalism The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Atheism David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Primum movens (Latin First cause) is a term used in philosophical and theological Arguments for the existence of God in connection A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an Argument for the Existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order purpose design Atheism Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All Atheism Freethought is a philosophical viewpoint that holds that Beliefs should be formed on the basis of Science and Logic and should not be influenced Atheism Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined Optimism The phrase " the best of all possible worlds " (le meilleur des mondes possibles was coined by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz This attempt has produced a wide variety of personal beliefs under the broad classification/category of belief of "deism". The Modern Deism web site includes one list of the unofficial tenets of modern deism.

Classical deism held that a human's relationship with God was impersonal: God created the world and set it in motion but does not actively intervene in individual human affairs but rather through Divine Providence. An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people In Theology, Divine Providence, or simply Providence, is the sovereignty superintendence or agency of God over events in people's lives and throughout What this means is that God will give humanity such things as reason and compassion but this applies to all and not individual intervention.

Some modern deists have modified this classical view and believe that humanity's relationship with God is transpersonal which means that God transcends the personal/impersonal duality and moves beyond such human terms. The term Transpersonal is often used to refer to psychological categories that transcend the normal features of ordinary ego-functioning Also, this means that it makes no sense to state that God intervenes or does not intervene as that is a human characteristic which God does not contain. Modern deists believe that they must continue what the classial deists started and continue to use modern human knowledge to come to understand God which in turn is why a human-like God that can lead to numerous contradictions and inconsistencies is no longer believed in and has been replaced with a much more abstract conception.

A modern definition has been created and provided by World Union of Deists (WUD) that provides a modern understanding of deism:

"Deism is the recognition of a universal creative force greater than that demonstrated by mankind, supported by personal observation of laws and designs in nature and the universe, perpetuated and validated by the innate ability of human reason coupled with the rejection of claims made by individuals and organized religions of having received special divine revelation. "

Because deism asserts God without accepting claims of divine revelation, it appeals to people from both ends of the religious spectrum. Antony Flew, for example, is a convert from atheism, and Raymond Fontaine was a Roman Catholic priest for over 20 years. Professor Antony Garrard Newton Flew (born 11 February 1923 is a British Philosopher.

The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) survey, which involved 50,000 participants, reported that the number of participants in the survey identifying themselves as deists grew at the rate of 717 percent between 1990 and 2001. Lightmatter Hsi Lai Temple 4jpg|thumb|200px| Hsi Lai Temple (lit If this were generalized to the US population as a whole, it would make deism the fastest-growing religious classification in the US for that period, with the reported total of 49,000 self-identified adherents representing about 0. There are several different Religions claiming to be the “fastest growing religion” 02% of the US population at the time. ^{[37] [38]}

Modern deistic organizations and websites

In 1993, Robert L. Johnson established the first deist organization since the days of Thomas Paine and Elihu Palmer with the World Union of Deists. The WUD offered the monthly hardcopy publication THINK!. Currently the WUD offers two online deist publications, THINKonline! and Deistic Thought & Action! As well as using the Internet for spreading the deist message, the WUD is also conducting a direct mail campaign.

1996 saw the first Web site dedicated to deism with the WUD site www.deism.com . In 1998 www. sullivan-county. com [1] was the Virginia/Tennessee affiliate of www. deism. com and the second oldest Deism site on the web. Instead of engaging in constant attacks on Christianity and Judaism, split from Deism. com to promote more traditional and historical deist' beliefs and history. From this effort, many other deist sites and discussion groups have appeared on the Internet such as Positive Deism, Deist Info, Modern Deism and many others. In the last few years, the Deist Alliance was created so that many of the sites on the internet could come together to support each other and advocate deism. The Deist Alliance has its own quarterly newsletter that is written by members and readers.

Subcategories of deism

Modern deists hold a wide range of views on the nature of God and God's relationship to the world. The common area of agreement is the desire to use reason, experience, and nature as the basis of belief.

There are a number of subcategories of modern deism, including monodeism, polydeism, pandeism, panendeism, spiritual deism, process deism, Christian deism, scientific deism, and humanistic deism. Polydeism (from Greek πολύς ( 'poly') meaning 'many' and Latin Deus meaning God is a Polytheistic form Pandeism or Pan-Deism ( Greek πάν, 'pan' = ' all ' and Latin Deus = God, in the sense of Deism Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives (Prime Designer). Others see God and the universe in a co-creative process (Prime Motivator). Some deists view God in classical terms and see God as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives (Prime Observer), while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit (Prime Mover).

Pandeism

Pandeism combines deism with pantheism, the belief that the universe is identical to God. Pandeism or Pan-Deism ( Greek πάν, 'pan' = ' all ' and Latin Deus = God, in the sense of Deism Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All Pandeism holds that God was a conscious and sentient force or entity that designed and created the universe, which operates by mechanisms set forth in the creation. God thus became an unconscious and nonresponsive being by becoming the universe. Other than this distinction (and the possibility that the universe will one day return to the state of being God), pandeistic beliefs are identical to deistic ones. The term pandeism was coined in 1859 by German philosophers and frequent collaborators Moritz Lazarus and Heymann Steinthal in Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Moritz Lazarus ( 15 September 1824 &ndash 13 April 1903) born at Filehne, in the Prussian province of Posen, Heymann or Hermann Steinthal (born at Gröbzig, Anhalt, May 16, 1823; died at Berlin March 14, 1899 They wrote:

Man stelle es also den Denkern frei, ob sie Theisten, Pan-theisten, Atheisten, Deisten (und warum nicht auch Pandeisten?)^[39]

This is translated as:

So we should let these thinkers decide themselves whether they are theists, pan-theists, atheists, deists (and why not even pandeists?)

In the 1960s, theologian Charles Hartshorne scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism (as well as pantheism) in favor of a God whose characteristics included "absolute perfection in some respects, relative perfection in all others" or "AR", writing that this theory "is able consistently to embrace all that is positive in either deism or pandeism", concluding that "panentheistic doctrine contains all of deism and pandeism except their arbitrary negations". Charles Hartshorne ( June 5, 1897 &ndash October 9, 2000) was a prominent American philosopher who concentrated primarily on the Philosophy ^[40]

Panendeism

Panendeism combines deism with panentheism, the belief that the universe is part of God, but not all of God. Panentheism (from Greek (pân "all" (en "in" and (Theós "God" "all-in-God" is a belief system The term was purportedly coined in late 2000 by Larry Copling in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, although some earlier uses have been spotted. Fort Lauderdale, known as the "Venice of America" due to its expansive and intricate Canal system is a city in Broward County, Florida, Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the For example, a 1995 news article quotes this use of the term by Jim Garvin, a Vietnam vet who became a Trappist monk in the Holy Cross Abbey[2] of Berryville, Virginia, and went on to lead the economic development of Phoenix, Arizona. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Vietnam Era veteran is a phrase used to describe someone who served in the armed forces of participating countries during the Vietnam War. Trappist redirects here This article is about the Cistercian order MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective Holy Cross Abbey is a Monastery of the Catholic Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance (OCSO popularly known as the Trappists. Berryville is an Incorporated town in Clarke County, Virginia, United States. Phoenix (ˈfiːˌnɪks O'odham Skikik, Yavapai Wasinka, Western Apache Fiinigis, Navajo Hoozdo, Garvin described his spiritual position as "'pandeism' or 'pan-en-deism,' something very close to the Native American concept of the all- pervading Great Spirit. Pandeism or Pan-Deism ( Greek πάν, 'pan' = ' all ' and Latin Deus = God, in the sense of Deism Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States The Great Spirit is a conception of a Supreme being prevalent among some Native American and First Nations cultures . . "^[41]

Copling coinage came while developing a more deistic interpretation of the panentheistic approach to understanding the Divine. The term was first published on Copling's website,[3] in early 2001. A more complete description of the concept was later made available via an article published on Copling's personal website ([4]) in 2004. The original ideology known as "PanenDeism", as outlined by the writings of Larry Copling, continues in its present development.

Opinions on prayer

Many classical deists were critical of some types of prayer. For example, in Christianity as Old as the Creation, Matthew Tindal argues against praying for miracles, but advocates prayer as both a human duty and a human need. Matthew Tindal, (1657&ndash August 16, 1733) was an eminent English deist author External link to portion of text

Today, deists hold a variety of opinions about prayer:

• Some contemporary deists believe (with the classical deists) that God has created the universe perfectly, so no amount of supplication, request, or begging can change the fundamental nature of the universe.

• Some deists believe that God is not an entity that can be contacted by human beings through petitions for relief; rather, God can only be experienced through the nature of the universe.

• Some deists do not believe in divine intervention but still find value in prayer as a form of meditation, self-cleansing, and spiritual renewal. Such prayers are often appreciative (i. e. , "Thank you for . . . ") rather than supplicative (i. e. , "Please God grant me . . . "). [5]

• Some deists, usually referred to as Spiritual Deists, practice meditation and make frequent use of Affirmative Prayer, a non-supplicative form of prayer which is common in the New Thought movement.

Alexander Pope, generally considered to have deistic sympathies, composed a poem he called "The Universal Prayer. Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical [6]

Albert Einstein was a deist, once he said "We followers of Spinoza see out God in the wonderful order and lawfulness of all that exists and in its soul as it reveals itself in man and animal. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical It is a different question whether belief in a personal God should be contested. Freud endorsed this view in his latest publication. I myself would never engage in such a task. For such a belief seems to me to the lack of any transcendental outlook of life, and I wonder whether one can ever successfully render to the majority of mankind a more sublime means in order to satisfy its metaphysical needs. "

See also

Ceremonial Deism Cosmological argument Evolutionary Creationism Freethought Freethought Association

George Washington Infinitism List of Deists List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations Philosophical theism

References

Bibliography

Today, the most accessible statement of deism is Thomas Paine's book The Age of Reason (1795). Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American It is short, readable, and witty. It is still in print and is also downloadable in electronic format from various Web sites. The Age of Reason Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology, a Deistic treatise written by eighteenth-century British radical and American

The best recent study of English deism is:

• The Radical Rhetoric of the English Deists: The Discourse of Skepticism, 1680-1750 by James A. Herrick (University of South Carolina Press, 1997)

Important discussions of deism can be found in:

• English Deism: Its Roots and Its Fruits by John Orr (1934)
• European Thought in the Eighteenth Century by Paul Hazard (1946, English translation 1954)
• A History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century by Sir Leslie Stephen, 2 volumes (1876, 3rd ed. Paul Gustave Marie Camille Hazard ( August 30, 1878, Nordpeene, France&mdash April 13, 1944, Paris) was a French scholar Sir Leslie Stephen, KCB (28 November 1832 &ndash 22 February 1904 was an English author critic and mountaineer and the father of Virginia Woolf and 1902)
• A History of Freethought: Ancient and modern, to the period of the French revolution by John Mackinnon Robertson (1915)

Other studies of deism include:

• Early Deism in France: From the so-called 'deistes' of Lyon (1564) to Voltaire's 'Lettres philosophiques' (1734) by C. John Mackinnon Robertson ( 14 November 1856 - 5 January 1933) was a prolific journalist advocate of rationalism and Secularism J. Betts (Martinus Nijhoff, 1984)
• The Seventeenth Century Background: Studies on the Thought of the Age in Relation to Poetry and Religion by Basil Willey (1934)
• The Eighteenth Century Background: Studies on the Idea of Nature in the Thought of the Period by Basil Willey (1940)
• Simon Tyssot de Patot and the Seventeenth-Century Background of Critical Deism by David Rice McKee (Johns Hopkins Press, 1941)
• The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During the Deist Controversy by William Lane Craig (Edwin Mellen, 1985)

Anthologies of deist writings include:

• Deism: An Anthology by Peter Gay (Van Nostrand, 1968)
• Deism and Natural Religion: A Source Book by E. Basil Willey ( July 25, 1897 – September 3, 1978) was a professor of English literature at Cambridge University and a prolific author Basil Willey ( July 25, 1897 – September 3, 1978) was a professor of English literature at Cambridge University and a prolific author Peter Gay (born June 20, 1923) is a Jewish American historian of the Social history of ideas born as Peter Joachim Fröhlich Graham Waring (Frederick Ungar, 1967)

External links

Informational links

• The Origins of English Rationalism
• Deism - Dictionary of the History of Ideas
• English Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• French Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Deism - ReligiousTolerance. org
• Deism - Catholic Encyclopedia (1908)
• The Rise and Fall of English Deism

Early history of deism

• An Account of the Growth of Deism in England by William Stephens, London: Printed for the Author, MDCXCVI, at the DCL.

Works by Thomas Paine

• collection of essays
• The Age of Reason at Project Gutenberg

Deism advocacy on the web

Spiritual Deism Deism and Reason Positive Deism Dynamic Deism World Union of Deists Deism and Panendeism information Deist Links

American/Unitarian Conference Temple of Reason The Deist Alliance Modern Deism To Nature's God Online Deist book and site Deist Information Deism in Brazil

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