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For the biological concept, see Defence mechanism (biology). Many Plants and Animals have developed physical defence mechanisms ( American English)
Goya, Los Caprichos.
Goya, Los Caprichos. Caprichos is a set of 80 Aquatint prints created by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya during the 1790s

In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, defence mechanisms or defense mechanisms (see -ce/-se) are psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Psychoanalytic theory is a general term for approaches to Psychoanalysis which attempt to provide a conceptual framework more-or-less independent of clinical practice rather American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences. Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life. An ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical and/or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. The purpose of the Ego Defence Mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety, social sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope. [1]

They are more accurately referred to as ego defence mechanisms, and can thus be categorized as occurring when the id impulses are in conflict with each other, when the id impulses conflict with super-ego values and beliefs, and when an external threat is posed to the ego. Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of Id, ego, and super-ego are the three parts of the " Psychic apparatus " defined in Sigmund Freud 's structural model of

The term "defence mechanism" is often thought to refer to a definitive singular term for personality traits which arise due to loss or traumatic experiences, but more accurately refers to several types of reactions which were identified during and after daughter Anna Freud's time. Anna Freud ( December 3, 1895 – October 9, 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud

Contents

Structural model: The id, ego, and superego

The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded According to this theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle: instant gratification of one’s own desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual impulses in ourselves, such as aggression (Thanatos or the Death instinct) and sexuality (Eros or the Life instinct). In Greek mythology, Thanatos (in Ancient Greek, θάνατος &ndash " Death " was the Daemon personification For example, when the id impulses (e. g. desire to have sexual relations with a stranger) conflict with the superego (e. g. belief in societal conventions of not having sex with unknown persons), the feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To reduce these negative feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms.

Freud also believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated with psychosexual stages. The concept of psychosexual development, as envisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century is a central element in his sexual

The iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.
The iceberg metaphor is often used to explain the psyche's parts in relation to one another.

Definitions of individual psyche structures

Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality:

Primary and secondary processes

In the ego, there are two ongoing processes. First, there is the unconscious primary process, where the thoughts are not organized in a coherent way, the feelings can shift, contradictions are not in conflict or are just not perceived that way, and condensations arise. There is no logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process. By contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organized in a coherent way. Most conscious thoughts originate here.

The reality principle

Id impulses are not appropriate for civilized society, so society presses us to modify the pleasure principle in favor of the reality principle; that is, the requirements of the external world.

Formation of the superego

The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards. The superego consists of two structures: the conscience, which stores information about what is "bad" and what has been punished and the ego ideal, which stores information about what is "good" and what one "should" do or be. Conscience is a hypothesized Ability or faculty that distinguishes whether our actions are right or wrong In Freudian psychology, the ego ideal (or ideal ego) is "an image of the perfect self towards which the Ego should aspire (Interestingly, the Freudian conscience became cognitive-behavioral therapist Albert Ellis' focus. )

The ego's use of defence mechanisms

When anxiety becomes too overwhelming it is then the place of the ego to employ defence mechanisms to protect the individual. Feelings of guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany the feeling of anxiety. In the first definitive book on defence mechanisms, Ego and mechanisms of defense (1936), Anna Freud introduced the concept of signal anxiety; she stated that it was "not directly a conflicted instinctual tension but a signal occurring in the ego of an anticipated instinctual tension". The signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. The anxiety is felt as an increase in bodily or mental tension and the signal that the organism receives in this way allows it the possibility of taking defensive action towards the perceived danger. Defence mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious blockage of these impulses.

Categorization of Defence Mechanisms

Level 1 Defence Mechanisms

The mechanisms on this level, when predominating, almost always are severely pathological. These three defences, in conjunction, permit one to effectively rearrange external reality and eliminate the need to cope with reality. The pathological users of these mechanisms frequently appear crazy or insane to others. Traditionally insanity or madness is the behaviour whereby a person flouts societal norms and may become a danger to himself and others These are the "psychotic" defences, common in overt psychosis. However, they are found in dreams and throughout childhood as healthy mechanisms. Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep.

They include:

Level 2 Defence Mechanisms

These mechanisms are often present in adults and more commonly present in adolescence. These mechanisms lessen distress and anxiety provoked by threatening people or by uncomfortable reality. People who excessively use such defences are seen as socially undesirable in that they are immature, difficult to deal with and seriously out of touch with reality. These are the so-called "immature" defences and overuse almost always lead to serious problems in a person's ability to cope effectively. These defences are often seen in severe depression and personality disorders. In adolescence, the occurrence of all of these defences is normal.

These include:

Level 3 Defence Mechanisms

These mechanisms are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. This article describes the term in psychology For the experimental metal band see Neurosis (band. Such defences have short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems in relationships, work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style of coping with the world.

These include:

Level 4 Defence Mechanisms

These are commonly found among emotionally healthy adults and are considered the most mature, even though many have their origins in the immature level. However, these have been adapted through the years so as to optimize success in life and relationships. The use of these defences enhances user pleasure and feelings of mastery. These defences help the users to integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts while still remaining effective. Persons who use these mechanisms are viewed as having virtues.

These include:

Different theories and classifications

The list of particular defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical consensus on the number of defence mechanisms. Introjection is a psychological process where the subject replicates in itself behaviors attributes or other fragments of the surrounding world especially of other subjects In Psychology, sublimation is a coping mechanism It has its roots in the Nietzschean & psychoanalytical approach and is often also referred to as a type Thought suppression, the process of deliberately trying to stop thinking about certain thoughts (Wegner 1989 is associated with Obsessive-compulsive disorder, in which a It has been attempted to classify defence mechanisms according to some of their properties (i. e. underlying mechanisms, similarities or connections with personality). Different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms. Large reviews of theories of defence mechanisms are available from Paulhus, Fridhandler and Hayes (1997)[3] and Cramer (1991)[4]. Also Journal of Personality (1998)[5] has a special issue on defence mechanisms.

Otto Kernberg (1967) has developed a theory of borderline personality organization (which one consequence may be borderline personality disorder). Otto F Kernberg (born 1928 is Psychoanalyst and Professor of Psychiatry at Weill Medical College of Cornell University. Borderline personality disorder ( BPD) is a psychiatric diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV Personality His theory is based on ego psychological object relations theory. Borderline personality organization develops when the child cannot integrate positive and negative mental objects together. Kernberg views the use of primitive defence mechanisms central to this personality organization. Primitive psychological defences are projection, denial, dissociation or splitting, and they are called borderline defence mechanisms. Also devaluation and projective identification are seen as borderline defences. [6]

In George Eman Vaillant's (1977) categorization defences form a continuum regarding to their psychoanalytical developmental level [7]. George Eman Vaillant MD (born 1934 is an American Psychiatrist and Professor at Harvard Medical School and Director of Research for the Department Levels are:

Robert Plutchik's (1979) theory views defenses as derivatives of basic emotions. Robert Plutchik (died April 29 of 2006 at 78 was a psychologist. Defence mechanisms in his theory are (in order of placement in circumplex model): reaction formation, denial, repression, regression, compensation, projection, displacement, intellectualization. [8]

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) published by American Psychiatric Association (1994) includes tentative diagnostic axis for defence mechanisms [9]. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the This classification is largely based on Vaillant's hierarchical view of defences, but has some modifications.

Notes

  1. ^ defense mechanism -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia. www. britannica. com. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
  2. ^ Vaillant, George Eman (1992). George Eman Vaillant MD (born 1934 is an American Psychiatrist and Professor at Harvard Medical School and Director of Research for the Department Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers. American Psychiatric Publishing, 238. ISBN 0880484047.  
  3. ^ Paulhus, D. L. , Fridhandler B. , & Hayes S. (1997). Psychological defense: Contemporary theory and research. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson & S. R. Briggs (Ed. ), Handbook of personality psychology (543-579). California: Academic Press.
  4. ^ Cramer, P. (1991). The Development of Defense Mechanisms: Theory, Research, and Assessment. New York, Springer-Verlag.
  5. ^ Special issue on defence mechanisms. Journal of Personality (1998), 66(6)
  6. ^ Kernberg, O. (1967). Borderline Personality Organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 15:641-685
  7. ^ Vaillant, G. E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little Brown.
  8. ^ Plutchik, R. , Kellerman, H. , & Conte, H. R. (1979). A structural theory of ego defenses and emotions. In C. E. Izard (Ed. ), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 229–-257). New York: Plenum Press.
  9. ^ American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. ). Washington, DC: Author.

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