Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological philosophy (ecosophy) that considers humankind an integral part of its environment. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Ecosophy, and ecophilosophy, are Neologisms formed by contracting the phrase ecological philosophy. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Deep ecology places greater value on non-human species, ecosystems and processes in nature than established environmental and green movements. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The environmental movement, a term that includes the conservation and green movements is a diverse scientific social and Political movement for Green politics is a Political ideology which places a high importance on ecological and environmental goals and on achieving these goals through broad-based Deep ecology has led to a new system of environmental ethics. Environmental ethics is the part of Environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between Human beings and the Natural environment The core principle of deep ecology as originally developed is Arne Næss's doctrine of biospheric egalitarianism — the claim that, like humanity, the living environment as a whole has the same right to live and flourish. Arne Dekke Eide Næss (born January 27, 1912) is widely regarded as the foremost Norwegian Philosopher of the 20th century and is the founder Deep ecology describes itself as "deep" because it persists in asking deeper questions concerning "why" and "how" and thus is concerned with the fundamental philosophical questions about the impacts of human life as one part of the ecosphere, rather than with a narrow view of ecology as a branch of biological science, and aims to avoid merely utilitarian environmentalism, which it argues is concerned with resource management of the environment for human purposes. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness

Contents 1 Development 1.1 Scientific 1.2 Spiritual 1.3 Experiential 2 Principles 3 Movement 4 Criticisms 4.1 The notion of intrinsic value 4.1.1 Interests in nature 4.2 Deepness 4.3 Ecofeminist response 4.4 Misunderstanding scientific information 4.5 "Shallow" View superior 4.6 Deep ecology as not "deep" enough 5 Links with other movements 6 Early Influences 7 Notable advocates of deep ecology 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Bibliography 10.1 Further reading 11 Educational Programs 12 External links

Development

The phrase deep ecology was coined by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss in 1973,^[1] and he helped give it a theoretical foundation. Arne Dekke Eide Næss (born January 27, 1912) is widely regarded as the foremost Norwegian Philosopher of the 20th century and is the founder "For Arne Næss, ecological science, concerned with facts and logic alone, cannot answer ethical questions about how we should live. For this we need ecological wisdom. Deep ecology seeks to develop this by focusing on deep experience, deep questioning and deep commitment. These constitute an interconnected system. Each gives rise to and supports the other, whilst the entire system is, what Næss would call, an ecosophy: an evolving but consistent philosophy of being, thinking and acting in the world, that embodies ecological wisdom and harmony. "^[2] Næss rejected the idea that beings can be ranked according to their relative value. For example, judgments on whether an animal has an eternal soul, whether it uses reason or whether it has consciousness (or indeed higher consciousness) have all been used to justify the ranking of the human animal as superior to other animals. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Higher consciousness, also called super consciousness ( Yoga) objective consciousness ( Gurdjieff) Buddhic consciousness ( Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Næss states that "the right of all forms [of life] to live is a universal right which cannot be quantified. No single species of living being has more of this particular right to live and unfold than any other species. " This metaphysical idea is elucidated in Warwick Fox's claim that we and all other beings are "aspects of a single unfolding reality". Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Warwick Fox (born 1954 is an Australian Philosopher and ethicist. ^[3]. As such Deep Ecology would support the view of Aldo Leopold in his book, "A Sand County Almanac" that humans are ‘plain members of the biotic community’. Aldo Starker Leopold ( January 11, 1887 – April 21, 1948) was an American Ecologist, Forester and Environmentalist A Sand County Almanac is a 1949 non-fiction book written by American Ecologist and Environmentalist Aldo Leopold. They also would support Leopold's "Land Ethic": "a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. The land ethic is a perspective on Environmental ethics first championed by Aldo Leopold in his book A Sand County Almanac. A biocoenosis (alternatively biocoenose or biocenose) termed by Karl Möbius in 1877 describes all the interacting Organisms living together It is wrong when it tends otherwise. "

Deep ecology offers a philosophical basis for environmental advocacy which may, in turn, guide human activity against perceived self-destruction. Deep ecology and environmentalism hold that the science of ecology shows that ecosystems can absorb only limited change by humans or other dissonant influences. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Further, both hold that the actions of modern civilization threaten global ecological well-being. Ecologists have described change and stability in ecological systems in various ways, including homeostasis, dynamic equilibrium, and "flux of nature". Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit A dynamic equilibrium occurs when two opposing Processes proceed at the same rate ^[4] Regardless of which model is most accurate, environmentalists contend that massive human economic activity has pushed the biosphere far from its "natural" state through reduction of biodiversity, climate change, and other influences. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences As a consequence, civilization is causing mass extinction. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period Deep ecologists hope to influence social and political change through their philosophy.

Scientific

Næss and Fox do not claim to use logic or induction to derive the philosophy directly from scientific ecology ^[5] but rather hold that scientific ecology directly implies the metaphysics of deep ecology, including its ideas about the self and further, that deep ecology finds scientific underpinnings in the fields of ecology and system dynamics. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of System dynamics is an approach to understanding the behaviour of Complex systems over time

In their 1985 book Deep Ecology,^[6] Bill Devall and George Sessions describe a series of sources of deep ecology. They include the science of ecology itself, and cite its major contribution as the rediscovery in a modern context that "everything is connected to everything else". They point out that some ecologists and natural historians, in addition to their scientific viewpoint, have developed a deep ecological consciousness--for some a political consciousness and at times a spiritual consciousness. The politics of consciousness Consciousness typically refers to the idea of a being who is self-aware Higher consciousness, also called super consciousness ( Yoga) objective consciousness ( Gurdjieff) Buddhic consciousness ( This is a perspective beyond the strictly human viewpoint, beyond anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism (from Greek άνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" and κέντρον kentron, "center" Anthropos (the term Among the scientists they mention particularly are Rachel Carson, Aldo Leopold, John Livingston, Paul R. Ehrlich and Barry Commoner, together with Frank Fraser Darling, Charles Sutherland Elton, Eugene Odum and Paul Sears. Rachel Louise Carson (May 27 1907 – April 14 1964 was an American marine biologist and Nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global Aldo Starker Leopold ( January 11, 1887 – April 21, 1948) was an American Ecologist, Forester and Environmentalist John Allen Livingston ( November 10, 1923 - January 17, 2006) was a Canadian naturalist, broadcaster, Paul Ralph Ehrlich (born May 29 1932 in Philadelphia Pennsylvania) is a renowned Entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera (butterflies Barry Commoner (born May 28 1917) is an American Biologist, college Professor, and eco-socialist. Sir Frank Fraser Darling (born Frank Darling 23 June, 1903 - 22 October[[ 979]] was an English Ecologist, Ornithologist Charles Sutherland Elton ( 29 March 1900 &ndash 1 May 1991) was an English zoologist and animal ecologist Eugene Pleasants Odum ( September 17, 1913 - August 10, 2002) was an American Scientist known for his pioneering work Paul Bigelow Sears ( December 17, 1891 - April 30, 1990) was an American Ecologist and writer

A further scientific source for deep ecology adduced by Devall and Sessions is the "new physics", which they describe as shattering Descartes's and Newton's vision of the universe as a machine explainable in terms of simple linear cause and effect, and instead providing a view of Nature in constant flux with the idea that observers are separate an illusion. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The word linear comes from the Latin word linearis, which means created by lines. They refer to Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics and The Turning Point for their characterisation of how the new physics leads to metaphysical and ecological views of interrelatedness which according to Capra should make deep ecology a framework for future human societies. Fritjof Capra (born February 1, 1939) is an Austrian born American Physicist. The Tao of Physics (full title The Tao of Physics An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism) was a 1975 book by

The scientific version of the Gaia hypothesis was also an influence on the development of deep ecology. The Gaia hypothesis is an ecological Hypothesis proposing that the Biosphere and the physical components of the Earth ( Atmosphere

In their book, Devall and Sessions also credit the American poet and social critic Gary Snyder — a man with commitments in Buddhism, Native American studies, the outdoors, and alternative social movements — as a major voice of wisdom in the evolution of their ideas. Gary Snyder (born May 8, 1930) is an American Poet (often associated with the Beat Generation Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States

Spiritual

The central spiritual tenet of deep ecology is that the human species is a part of the Earth and not separate from it. A process of self-realisation or "re-earthing" is used for an individual to intuitively gain an ecocentric perspective. The notion is based on the idea that the more we expand the self to identify with "others" (people, animals, ecosystems), the more we realise ourselves. Transpersonal psychology has been used by Warwick Fox to support this idea. Transpersonal psychology is a school of Psychology that studies the Transpersonal, self- transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human experience Warwick Fox (born 1954 is an Australian Philosopher and ethicist.

Other traditions which have influenced deep ecology include Taoism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Evolution Theology (The Great Story) primarily because they have a non-dualistic approach to subject and object. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. The subject-object problem is a longstanding philosophical issue In relation to the Judeo-Christian tradition, Næss offers the following criticism: "The arrogance of stewardship [as found in the Bible] consists in the idea of superiority which underlies the thought that we exist to watch over nature like a highly respected middleman between the Creator and Creation. Judeo-Christian (or Judaeo-Christian, sometimes written as Judæo-Christian) is a term used to describe the body of concepts and values which are thought to be held Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. "^[7] This theme had been expounded in Lynn Townsend White, Jr.'s 1967 article "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis",^[8] in which however he also offered as an alternative Christian view of man's relation to nature that of Saint Francis of Assisi, who he says spoke for the equality of all creatures, in place of the idea of man's domination over creation. Lynn Townsend White Jr ( April 29 1907 – March 30 1987) was a professor of medieval History at Princeton, For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see Saint-François d'Assise.

Experiential

Drawing upon the Buddhist tradition is the work of Joanna Macy. Joanna Rogers Macy (sometimes listed as Joanna R Macy or Joanna Marie Macy; b Macy, working as an anti-nuclear activist in USA, found that one of the major impediments confronting the activists' cause was the presence of unresolved emotions of despair, grief, sorrow, anger and rage. The denial of these emotions led to apathy and disempowerment.

We may have intellectual understanding of our interconnectedness, but our culture, experiential deep ecologists like John Seed argue, robs us of emotional and visceral experience of that interconnectedness which we had as small children, but which has been socialised out of us by a highly anthropocentric alienating culture. John Seed is an Australian Environmentalist and director of the Rainforest Information Centre which successfully campaigned to save the sub-tropical

Through "Despair and Empowerment Work" and more recently "The Work that Reconnects", Macy and others have been taking Experiential Deep Ecology into many countries including especially the USA, Europe (particularly Britain and Germany), Russia and Australia.

Principles

Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be freely exploited by humans. The ethics of deep ecology hold that a whole system is superior to any of its parts. They offer an eight-tier platform to elucidate their claims:^[9]

1. The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth have value in themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent value). These values are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes.
2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves.
3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital human needs.
4. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease.
5. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening.
6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present.
7. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great.
8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to try to implement the necessary changes.

Movement

In practice, deep ecologists support decentralization, the creation of ecoregions, the breakdown of industrialism in its current form, and an end to authoritarianism. __FORCETOC__ Decentralization or Decentralisation (see Spelling differences) is the process of dispersing Decision-making governance closer to the people An ecoregion ( ecological region) sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically and geographically defined area smaller than a "realm" or " The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union

Deep ecology is not normally considered a distinct movement, but as part of the green movement. Green politics is a Political ideology which places a high importance on ecological and environmental goals and on achieving these goals through broad-based The deep ecological movement could be defined as those within the green movement who hold deep ecological views. Deep ecologists welcome the labels "Gaian" and "Green" (including the broader political implications of this term, e. A Gaian is a radical Green who views the Ecology of the Earth's Biosphere not only as the basis of human moral examples but of all Cognition Green politics is a Political ideology which places a high importance on ecological and environmental goals and on achieving these goals through broad-based g. commitment to peace). A peace movement is a Social movement that seeks to achieve ideals such as the ending of a particular war (or all wars minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or Deep ecology has had a broad general influence on the green movement by providing an independent ethical platform for Green parties, political ecologists and environmentalists. A Green party' or ecologist party is a formally organized Political party based on the principles of Green politics. Green politics is a Political ideology which places a high importance on ecological and environmental goals and on achieving these goals through broad-based Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment.

The philosophy of deep ecology helped differentiate the modern ecology movement by pointing out the anthropocentric bias of the term "environment", and rejecting the idea of humans as authoritarian guardians of the environment. The global ecology movement is based upon environmental protection and is one of several new Social movements that emerged at the end of the sixties. Anthropocentrism (from Greek άνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" and κέντρον kentron, "center" Anthropos (the term Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment.

Criticisms

The notion of intrinsic value

Some people criticize the notion that the intrinsic value of ecological systems exists independently of humanity's recognition of it. An example of this approach is that one might say that a work of art is only valuable insofar as humans perceive it to be worthwhile. Such people claim that the ecosystem's value does not reach beyond our appreciation of it. Intrinsic value is a philosophical concept which some do not accept. ^[10] However, intrinsic value defined as value existing separate from human thought may in this case be conflated with intrinsic value defined as natural worth existing independent of modification or application of a substance or entity, clouding the argument. This entire argument, however, assumes both the primacy and uniqueness of the ability of humans to create value, as opposed to a collection of sentient beings dependent on a perfectly ordered system for life or even a natural system devoid of sentient life being incapable of possessing inherent value. It also is a result of the confusion between anthropogenic - something being created by humans, and anthropocentric - exclusive value being given to humans. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Anthropocentrism (from Greek άνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" and κέντρον kentron, "center" Anthropos (the term

Interests in nature

For something to require rights and protection intrinsically, it must have interests. The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent ^[11] Deep ecology is criticised for presuming that plants, for example, have their own interests. Deep ecologists claim to identify with the environment, and in doing so, criticise those who claim they have no understanding what the environment's interests are. The criticism is that the interests that a deep ecologist purports to give to nature, such as growth, survival, balance are really human interests. "The earth is endowed with 'wisdom', wilderness equates with 'freedom', and life forms are said to emit 'moral' qualities. "^[12] It has also been argued that species and ecosystems themselves have rights. ^[13] However, the overarching criticism assumes that humans, in governing their own affairs, are somehow immune from this same assumption; i. e. how can governing humans truly presume to understand the interests of the rest of humanity. While the deep ecologist critic would answer that the logical application of language and social mores would provide this justification, i. e. voting patterns etc, the deep ecologist would note that these "interests" are ultimately observable solely from the logical application of the behavior of the life form, which is the same standard used by deep ecologists to perceive the standard of interests for the natural world.

Deepness

Deep ecology is criticised for its claim to be deeper than alternative theories, which by implication are shallow. However despite repeated complaints about use of the term it still enjoys wide currency; deep evidently has an attractive resonance for many who seek to establish a new ethical framework for guiding human action with respect to the natural world. It may be presumptuous to assert that one's thinking is deeper than others'. When Arne Næss coined the term deep ecology he compared it unfavourably with shallow environmentalism which he criticized for its utilitarian and anthropocentric attitude to nature and for its materialist and consumer-oriented outlook. Arne Dekke Eide Næss (born January 27, 1912) is widely regarded as the foremost Norwegian Philosopher of the 20th century and is the founder Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Anthropocentrism (from Greek άνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" and κέντρον kentron, "center" Anthropos (the term This article addresses materialism in the economic sense of the word Consumerism is the equation of personal Happiness with the purchase of material possessions and consumption. ^[14][15] Against this is Arne Næss's own view that the "depth" of deep ecology resides in the persistence of its interrogative questioning, particularly in asking "Why?" when faced with initial answers. Arne Dekke Eide Næss (born January 27, 1912) is widely regarded as the foremost Norwegian Philosopher of the 20th century and is the founder

Ecofeminist response

Both ecofeminism and deep ecology put forward a new conceptualization of the self. Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which attempts to unite Environmentalism and Feminism, with some currents linking Deep ecology and Some ecofeminists, such as Marti Kheel,^[16] argue that self-realization and identification with all nature places too much emphasis on the whole, at the expense of the independent being. Ecofeminists contend that their concept of the self (as a dynamic process consisting of relations) is superior. Ecofeminists would also place more emphasis on the problem of androcentrism rather than anthropocentrism. Androcentrism ( Greek, andro-, "man male" is the practice conscious or otherwise of placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at Anthropocentrism (from Greek άνθρωπος anthropos, "human being" and κέντρον kentron, "center" Anthropos (the term

Misunderstanding scientific information

Daniel Botkin^[17] has compared deep ecology unfavorably with its antithesis, the wise use movement, when he says that they both "misunderstand scientific information and then arrive at conclusions based on their misunderstanding, which are in turn used as justification for their ideologies. The Wise use movement in the United States is a loose-knit coalition of groups promoting private Property rights and use of the Natural environment as a Both begin with an ideology and are political and social in focus. " Elsewhere though, he asserts that deep ecology must be taken seriously in the debate about the relationship between humans and nature because it challenges the fundamental assumptions of western philosophy. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Botkin has also criticized Næss's restatement and reliance upon the balance of nature idea and the perceived contradiction between his argument that all species are morally equal and his disparaging description of pioneering species. A pioneer species are Species which colonizes previously uncolonized land usually leading to Ecological succession.

"Shallow" View superior

Writer William Grey believes that developing a non-anthropocentric set of values is "a hopeless quest" He seeks an improved "shallow" view, writing, "What's wrong with shallow views is not their concern about the well-being of humans, but that they do not really consider enough in what that well-being consists. William Grey was a medieval Bishop of Ely. He was nominated to Ely on June 21 1454 and consecrated on September 8 1454 We need to develop an enriched, fortified anthropocentric notion of human interest to replace the dominant short-term, sectional and self-regarding conception. "^[18]

Deep ecology as not "deep" enough

Social ecologists such as Murray Bookchin^[19] claim that deep ecology fails to link environmental crises with authoritarianism and hierarchy. Social Ecology is a philosophy developed by French geographer and anarchist Élisée Reclus and revived by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s Murray Bookchin ( January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union @@@ main@@@ - title Hierarchy@@@ keywords structure; sociology; information@@@ review@@@ - Social ecologists believe that environmental problems are firmly rooted in the manner of human social interaction, and protest that an ecologically sustainable society could still be socially exploitative. Deep ecologists reject the argument that ecological behavior is rooted in the social paradigm (according to their view, that is an anthropocentric fallacy), and they maintain that the converse of the social ecologists' objection is also true in that it is equally possible for a socially egalitarian society to continue to exploit the Earth. Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) is a political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have

Links with other movements

Parallels have been drawn between deep ecology and other movements, in particular the animal rights movement and Earth First!. "Animal liberation" redirects here for other uses see Animal liberation (disambiguation. Earth First! is a radical environmental advocacy group that emerged in the Southwestern United States in 1979

Peter Singer's 1975 book Animal Liberation critiqued anthropocentrism and put the case for animals to be given moral consideration. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. Animal Liberation is a book by Australian philosopher Peter Singer, published in 1975 This can be seen as a part of a process of expanding the prevailing system of ethics to wider groupings. However, Singer has disagreed with deep ecology's belief in the intrinsic value of nature separate from questions of suffering, taking a more utilitarian stance. The feminist and civil rights movements also brought about expansion of the ethical system for their particular domains. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate See also Protests of 1968 Historically the civil rights movement was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately twenty years (1960-1980 in Likewise deep ecology brought the whole of nature under moral consideration. ^[20] The links with animal rights are perhaps the strongest, as "proponents of such ideas argue that 'All life has intrinsic value'". "Animal liberation" redirects here for other uses see Animal liberation (disambiguation. ^[21]

Many in the radical environmental direct-action movement Earth First! claim to follow deep ecology, as indicated by one of their slogans No compromise in defence of mother earth. Earth First! is a radical environmental advocacy group that emerged in the Southwestern United States in 1979 In particular, David Foreman, the co-founder of the movement, has also been a strong advocate for deep ecology, and engaged in a public debate with Murray Bookchin on the subject. Dave Foreman (born 1947 is a US Environmentalist and co-founder of the radical environmental movement Earth First! Early life and education The Murray Bookchin ( January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social ^[22][23] Judi Bari was another prominent Earth Firster who espoused deep ecology. Judi Bari ( November 7, 1949 &ndash March 2, 1997) was an American Environmentalist and labor leader a Many Earth First! actions have a distinct deep ecological theme; often these actions will ostensibly be to save an area of old growth forest, the habitat of a snail or an owl, even individual trees. Ancient Woodland Old growth forest, (also termed primary forest, ancient forest, virgin forest, primeval forest, frontier It should however be noted that, especially in the United Kingdom, there are also strong anti-capitalist and anarchist currents in the movement, and actions are often symbolic or have other political aims. Anti-capitalism describes a wide variety of movements ideas and attitudes which oppose Capitalism. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i At one point Arne Næss also engaged in environmental direct action, though not under the Earth First! banner, when he tied himself to a Norwegian fjord in a successful protest against the building of a dam. A fjord or fiord (fjɔːd|fiːɔːd or fiːɔːd is a long narrow Inlet with steep sides created in a valley carved by glacial activity. ^[24]

Robert Greenway and Theodore Roszak have employed the Deep Ecology (DE) platform as a means to argue for Ecopsychology. Theodore Roszak can refer to Theodore Roszak (artist (1907&ndash1981 Polish-American sculptor and painter Theodore Roszak (scholar Although Ecopsychology is a highly differentiated umbrella that encompasses many practices and perspectives, its ethos is generally consistent with DE. As this now almost forty-year old "field" expands and continues to be reinterpreted by a variety of practitioners, social and natural scientists, and humanists, "ecopsycology" may change to include these novel perspectives.

Early Influences

• Mary Hunter Austin | Ralph Waldo Emerson | Aldo Leopold
• John Muir | Henry David Thoreau

Notable advocates of deep ecology

Judi Bari Thomas Berry Wendell Berry Leonardo Boff Fritjof Capra Michael Dowd David Foreman Vivienne Elanta Warwick Fox Edward Goldsmith Felix Guattari Martin Heidegger (controversial: see Development above) Derrick Jensen Dolores LaChapelle Pentti Linkola (controversial)

John Livingston Joanna Macy Jerry Mander Freya Mathews Terence McKenna Arne Næss Daniel Quinn Theodore Roszak Savitri Devi (controversial) John Seed Paul Shepard Gary Snyder Richard Sylvan Douglas Tompkins Oberon Zell-Ravenheart John Zerzan

See also

Earth liberation Anarcho-primitivism Coupled human-environment system EcoCommunalism Ecopsychology Environmental psychology EcoTheology Growth Fetish Human ecology

Negative Population Growth | Population Connection Permaculture Systems theory | The Great Story The Revenge of Gaia Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Development criticism Pathetic fallacy

Notes

Bibliography

• Bender, F. L. 2003. The Culture of Extinction: Toward a Philosophy of Deep Ecology Amherst, New York: Humanity Books.
• Devall, W. and G. Sessions. 1985. Deep Ecology: Living As if Nature Mattered Salt Lake City: Gibbs M. Smith, Inc.
• Drengson, Alan. 1995. The Deep Ecology Movement
• Katz, E. , A. Light, et al. 2000. Beneath the Surface: Critical Essays in the Philosophy of Deep Ecology Cambridge, Mass. : MIT Press.
• Næss, A. 1989. Ecology, Community and Lifestyle: Outline of an Ecosophy Translated by D. Rothenberg. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Passmore, J. 1974. Man’s Responsibility for Nature London: Duckworth.
• Sessions, G. (ed) 1995. Deep Ecology for the Twenty-first Century Boston: Shambhala.
• Taylor, B. and M. Zimmerman. 2005. Deep Ecology" in B. Taylor, ed. , Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, v 1, pp. 456-60, London: Continuum International. Also online at [1]

Further reading

• Jozef Keulartz, Struggle for nature : a critique of radical ecology, London [etc. ] : Routledge, 1998
• Michael Tobias ed, Deep Ecology, Avant Books (1984, 1988) ISBN 0-932238-13-0.
• Harold Glasser (ed), The Selected Works of Arne Næss, Volumes 1-10. Springer, (2005), ISBN 1-4020-3727-9. (review)
• Jack Turner, The Abstract Wild, Tucson, Univ of Arizona Press (1996)
• de Steiguer, J. E. 2006. The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought. The University of Arizona Press. 246 pp.

Educational Programs

• * Naropa University Master of Arts Transpersonal Psychology, Ecopsychology Concentration

External links

• Downloadable interview with Dr. Alan Drengson about Deep Ecology and Arne Næss. June 6, 2008.
• Nature Worship in Hinduism
• Church of Deep Ecology
• Deep Ecology - Nature Does Matter!
• Deep Ecology Movement, Alan Drengson, Foundation for Deep Ecology.
• Environmental Ethics Journal
• Foundation for Deep Ecology
• Green Parties World Wide
• The Great Story - a leading Deep Ecology/Deep Time educational website
• Gaia Foundation: an Australian organisation based upon the principles of Deep Ecology. See especially its links page.
• The Green Web a left biocentric environmental research group, with a number of writings on deep ecology
• The Trumpeter, Canadian journal of ecosophy, quite a number of articles from Næss among others
• Welcome to All Beings: Joanna Macy on the work of Experiential Deep Ecology
• Social Ecology vs Deep Ecology - A Challenge for the Ecology Movement by Murray Bookchin
• Deep Ecology in the Song of Songs

Joanna Rogers Macy (sometimes listed as Joanna R Macy or Joanna Marie Macy; b

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