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Ahuras · Daevas
Angra Mainyu
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Avesta · Gathas
Vendidad
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Book of Arda Viraf
Book of Jamasp
Story of Sanjan
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Daeva (daēuua, daāua, daēva) is the Avestan language term for a particular sort of supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristics. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Ahura Mazda ( ae Ahura Mazdā) is the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one uncreated Creator Zoroaster ( Latinized from Greek variants) or Zarathushtra (from Avestan Zaraθuštra) also referred to as Zartosht (زرتشت Asha ( aša) or arta is the Avestan language term for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept For the fictional character in the Marvel Universe series see Ahura (comics; for the river see Akhurian River. "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. The word "Gātha" means a "hymn of praise" in the earliest Indo-Iranian poetry The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. Ahuna Vairya is the Avestan language name of the most sacred of the Gathic hymns of the Avesta, the revered texts of Zoroastrianism. A Zoroastrian Fire Temple is a place of worship for Zoroastrians. The Dēnkard or Dēnkart ( Middle Persian: "Acts of Religion" is a 10th century compendium of the Mazdaen Zoroastrian beliefs and customs The Bundahishn, meaning "Primal Creation" is an account of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology and reflects ancient Zoroastrian and even pre-Zoroastrian beliefs The Book of Arda Viraf is a Zoroastrian religious text that describes the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian (the 'Viraf' of the story through the next world The Jamasp Nameh (var Jāmāsp Nāmag, Jāmāsp Nāmeh, "Story of Jamasp" is a Middle Persian book of revelations The Story of Sanjan (also Qissa-i Sanjan or Kisse-i Sanjan) is an account of the early years of Zoroastrian settlers on the Indian subcontinent Zurvanism is a now-extinct branch of Zoroastrianism that had the divinity Zurvan as its First The Zoroastrian calendar is a religious Calendar used by members of the Zoroastrian faith and it is an approximation of the (tropical Solar calendar. Zoroastrianism has numerous festivals and holy days all of which are bound to the Zoroastrian calendar. In the Zoroastrian faith marriage is encouraged an institution greatly favoured by the religious texts. Zoroastrianism eschatology is the oldest Eschatology in recorded history Zoroastrians in Iran have had a long history being the oldest religious community of that nation to survive to the present-day The Iranis are an ethno-religious community of the Indian subcontinent; descendants of Zoroastrians who emigrated from Greater Iran (in the main from Zoroastrians have faced much religious discrimination including forced conversions harassments as well as being identified as Najis "ritually impure" Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta.

In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian canon, the daevas are 'wrong gods' or 'false gods' or 'gods that are (to be) rejected'. The word "Gātha" means a "hymn of praise" in the earliest Indo-Iranian poetry Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings This meaning is – subject to interpretation – perhaps also evident in the Old Persian 'daiva inscription' of the 5th century BCE. The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) In the Younger Avesta, the daevas are noxious creatures that promote chaos and disorder. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. In later tradition and folklore, the dēws (Zoroastrian Middle Persian; New Persian divs) are personifications of every imaginable evil. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect

Contents

Origin and development

Etymology

Old Avestan daēuua or daēva derives from Old Iranian *daiva, which in turn derives from Indo-Iranian *devá- "god," reflecting Proto-Indo-European *deiu̯ó with the same meaning. For derivatives in a European context, see Tyr.

The Vedic Sanskrit cognate of Avestan daēuua is devá-, continuing in later Indic languages as dəv. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic) are a branch of the Indo-European language family Equivalents in Iranian languages include Old Persian daiva, Middle Persian dēw and New Persian dīv. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect

Problems of interpretation

While it is likely that the daevas were once the "national" gods of pre-Zoroastrian Iran,[1] there is "no known Iranian dialect attests clearly and certainly the survival of a positive sense for [Old Iranian] *daiva-. Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایران‌زمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. "[2] This "fundamental fact of Iranian linguistics" is "impossible" to reconcile with the testimony of the Gathas, where the daevas, though rejected, were still evidently gods that continued to have a following. [2]

This essential contradiction has yet to be conclusively explained. Given the fragmentary and discontinuous information in the sources, it is an extremely difficult issue. In general, "rejection of the [daevas] is linked to Zoroaster's reform"[3] and Gershevitch[4] and others following Lommel[5] consider the progression from "national" gods to demons to be attributable to the "genius of Zoroaster. "[2]

In comparison with Vedic usage

Although with some points of comparison such as shared etymology, Indic devá- is thematically different from Avestan daēva. In the RigVeda (10. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" 124. 3), the daevas are the "younger gods", in conflict with the asuras, the "older gods". In Hinduism In Hinduism, the Asura ( Sanskrit: असुर are a group of power-seeking deities sometimes referred to as Demons or sinful There is no such division evident in the Zoroastrian texts.

In the later Vedic texts (not generally a source of comparison with Iranian texts), the conflict between the two groups of devas and asuras is a primary theme. In Hinduism In Hinduism, the Asura ( Sanskrit: असुर are a group of power-seeking deities sometimes referred to as Demons or sinful This theme is not attested in an Iranian context where conflict occurs between asha and druj, and the respective supporters on either side. Asha ( aša) or arta is the Avestan language term for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine

The Zoroastrian ahuras (etymologically related to the Vedic asuras) are only vaguely defined and only three in number. For the fictional character in the Marvel Universe series see Ahura (comics; for the river see Akhurian River. Similarly, the use of asura in the RigVeda is unsystematic and inconsistent and "it can hardly be said to confirm the existence of a category of gods opposed to the devas. " Indeed, RigVedic deva is variously applied to most gods, including many of the asuras.

Moreover, the demonization of the asuras in India and the demonization of the daevas in Iran both took place "so late that the associated terms cannot be considered a feature of Indo-Iranian religious dialectology. "[2] The view - popularized by Nyberg,[6] Duchesne-Guillemin[7] and Widengren[8] of a prehistorical opposition of *asura/daiva involves "interminable and entirely conjectural discussions" on the status of various Indo-Iranian entities that in one culture are asuras/ahuras and in the other are devas/daevas (see examples in the Younger Avesta, below).

In scripture

In Zoroaster's revelation

In the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and believed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the daevas are not yet the demons that they would become in later Zoroastrianism. The word "Gātha" means a "hymn of praise" in the earliest Indo-Iranian poetry Zoroaster ( Latinized from Greek variants) or Zarathushtra (from Avestan Zaraθuštra) also referred to as Zartosht (زرتشت

In these pre-historic texts, where the term occurs 19 times, the daevas are a distinct category of "quite genuine gods, who had, however, been rejected. "[1] In Yasna 32. Yasna ( Avestan: 'oblation' or 'worship' is the name of the primary liturgical collection of texts of the Avesta as well as the name of the 3 and 46. 1, the daevas are still worshipped by the Iranian peoples. Yasna 32. 8 notes that some of the followers of Zoroaster had previously been followers of the daevas.

In the Gathas, the poet censures the daevas as being incapable of discerning truth (asha-) from falsehood (druj-). Asha ( aša) or arta is the Avestan language term for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine They are consequently in "error" (aēnah-), which led them to have accepted the bad religion. Simultaneously, the Indo-Iranian legacy of the daevas as beneficient gods is still evident in numerous expressions that appear in both Avestan and Vedic Sanskrit. Further, although the daevas are described as being incapable of proper discernment, they are never identified with the druj itself. The daevas are never themselves druj "false" or dregvant "of the lie. "

From such ambiguity it has been concluded that – at the time the Gathas were composed - "the process of rejection, negation, or demonization of these gods was only just beginning, but, as the evidence is full of gaps and ambiguities, this impression may be erroneous. "[1]

Although the daevas are clearly identified with evil (eg Yasna 32. 5), they are not identified as evil. They deceive mankind and themselves but they are not aka mainyu (aka being the Avestan language word for "evil". Hence, 'aka mainyu' is the "evil spirit" or "evil mind" or "evil thought").

In Yasna 32. 4, the daevas are revered by the Usij, described as being a class of "false priests" - devoid of goodness of mind and heart - that are hostile to cattle and husbandry. (Yasna 32. 10-11, 44. 20) Like the daevas that they follow, "the Usij are known throughout the seven regions of the earth as the offspring of "evil thought" (aka mainyu), "lie" (druj), and arrogance. (Yasna 32. 3). "[9] Yasna 30. 6 suggests the daeva-worshipping priests met often with Zoroaster to argue but fail to move him.

The Gathas only speak of the daevas as a group. The hymns also do not mention the individual daevas by name. Although the polemic against the daevas is a major theme in the Gathas, in other older sections of the Avesta the daevas are not mentioned at all.

In the Younger Avesta

In the Younger Avesta, the daevas are unambiguously hostile entities. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language.

In contrast, the word daevayasna- (literally "one who sacrifices to daevas") denotes adherents of other religions and thus still preserves some semblance of the original meaning in that the daeva- prefix still denotes "other" gods. In Yasht 5. The ae Yashts ( ae Yašt s are a collection of twenty-one hymns in Younger Avestan. 94 however, the daevayasna- are those who sacrifice to Anahita during the hours of darkness - i. ae Aredvi Sura Anahita ( ae Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā) is the Avestan language name of an Indo-Iranian Cosmological figure venerated as the divinity e. the hours when the daevas lurk about - and daevayasna- appears then to be an epithet applied to those who deviate from accepted practice and/or harvested religious disapproval. [10]

The Vendidad – a contraction of vi-daevo-dāta, "given against the daevas" – is a collection of late Avestan texts deals almost exclusively with the daevas, or rather, their various manifestations and ways to confound them. The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. Vi. daeva- "rejecting the daevas" qualifies the faithful Zoroastrian with the same force as mazdayasna- ('Mazda worshiper'). [3]

In Vendidad 10. 9 and 19. 43, three divinities of the Vedic pantheon follow Angra Mainyu in a list of demons. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation. Completely adapted to Iranian phonology, these are Indra (Vedic Indra), Sarva (Vedic Sarva, Shiva) and Nanghaithya (Vedic Nasatya). Indra ( Sanskrit: इन्द्र or इंद्र Indra, Malay: Indera, Thai: พระอินทร์ Phra-Intra Sarva is a Sanskrit word meaning all or everything and whole, complete. Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva The Ashvins (अश्विन ( aśvin- "possessor of horses" "horse tamer" "cavalier" dual aśvinau) or Ashwini Kumaras The process by which these three came to appear in the Avesta is uncertain. Together with three other daevas – Tauru, Zairi and Nasu - that do not have Vedic equivalents, the six oppose the six Amesha Spentas. ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous

Vendidad 19. 1 and 19. 44 have Angra Mainyu dwelling in the region of the daevas, which the Vendidad sets in the north and/or the nether world (Vendidad 19. 47, Yasht 15. 43), a world of darkness. In Vendidad 19. 1 and 19. 43-44, Angra Mainyu is the daevanam daevo, "daeva of daevas" or chief of the daevas. The superlative daevo. taema is however assigned to the demon Paitisha ("opponent"). In an enumeration of the daevas in Vendidad 1. 43, Angra Mainyu appears first and Paitisha appears last. "Nowhere is Angra Mainyu said to be the creator of the daevas or their father. "[11]

The Vendidad is usually recited after nightfall since the last part of the day is considered to be the time of the demons. Because the Vendidad is the means to disable them, this text is said to be effective only when recited between sunset and sunrise.

In inscriptions

Old Persian daiva occurs twice in Xerxes' daiva inscription (XPh, early 5th century BCE). Xerxes I of Persia was a King of Persia (reigned 485–465 BC of the Achaemenid dynasty. This trilingual text also includes one reference to a daivadana "house of the daivas", generally interpreted to be a reference to a shrine or sanctuary.

In his inscription, Xerxes records that "by the favour of Ahura Mazda I destroyed that establishment of the daivas and I proclaimed, 'The daivas thou shalt not worship!'"[12] This statement has been interpreted one of two ways: Either the statement is an ideological one and daivas were gods that were to be rejected, or the statement was politically motivated and daivas were gods that were followed by (potential) enemies of the state. Ahura Mazda ( ae Ahura Mazdā) is the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one uncreated Creator [13]

In tradition and folklore

In Zoroastrian tradition

In the Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, the dews are invariably rendered with the Aramaic ideogram ŠDYA or the more common plural ŠDYAˀn that signified "demons" even in the singular. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Aramaic alphabet is an Abjad, a Consonantal Alphabet, used for writing Aramaic.

Dews play a crucial role in the cosmogonic drama of the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian view of creation completed in the 12th century. The Bundahishn, meaning "Primal Creation" is an account of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology and reflects ancient Zoroastrian and even pre-Zoroastrian beliefs In this text, the evil spirit Ahriman (the middle Persian equivalent of Avestan Angra Mainyu) creates his hordes of dews to counter the creation of Ormuzd (Avestan Ahura Mazda). "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation. Ahura Mazda ( ae Ahura Mazdā) is the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one uncreated Creator This notion is already alluded to in the Vendidad (see Younger Avestan texts above), but only properly developed in the Bundahishn. In particular, Ahriman is seen to create six dews that in Zoroastrian tradition are the antitheses of the Amahraspands (Avestan Amesha Spentas). ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous

Mirroring the task of the Amesha Spentas through which Ahura Mazda realized creation, the six antitheses are the instrument through which Angra Mainyu creates all the horrors in the world. Further, the arch-daevas of Vendidad 10. The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta. 9 and 19. 43 are identified as the antithetical counterparts of Ardawahisht (Avestan Asha Vahishta), Shahrevar (Avestan Kshathra Vairya) and Spendarmad (Avestan Armaiti). Asha ( aša) or arta is the Avestan language term for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous The six arch-demons are respectively

This assignment (Bundahishn XXVII. Akem Manah ( Akәm Manah) is the Avestan language name of Zoroastrianism's demon of the "evil mind" or "evil purpose" or "evil thinking" 2ff) is slightly at odds with scripture, where the moral principles (that each Amesha Spenta represents) have other immoral principles that they are opposed to. This is not however a complete breach, for while in the Gathas asha - the principle - is the diametric opposite of the abstract druj, in Zoroastrian tradition, it is Ardawahisht – the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis of asha – that is opposed to by Indra, who freezes the minds of creatures from practicing "righteousness" (asha). ae Amesha Spenta ( ae Aməša Spənta) is an Avestan language term for a class of divinity/divine concepts in Zoroastrianism, and literally means "Bounteous In Linguistics, a hypostasis, from the Greek word ὑπόστασιςmeaning foundation, base or that which stands behind is

Also mirroring Ormuzd's act of creation, i. e. the realization of the Amesha Spenta's by His "thought", is Ahriman's creation of the dews through his "demonic essence. " Other texts describe this event as being to Ahriman's detriment for his act of "creation" is actually an act of destruction: Ahriman is the very epitome (and hypostasis) of destruction, and hence he did not "create" the demons, he realized them through destruction, and they then became that destruction. The consequence is that - as Ahriman and the dews can only destruct - they will ultimately destroy themselves (Denkard 3). As the medieval texts also do for Ahriman, they question whether the dews exist at all. Since "existence" is the domain of Ormuzd, and Ahriman and his dews are anti-existence, it followed that Ahriman and his dews could not possibly exist. One interpretation of the Denkard proposes that the dews were perceived to be non-existent physically (that is, they were considered non-ontological) but present psychologically. [14] (see also: Ahriman: In Zoroastrian tradition)

For a different set of texts, such as the Shayest ne shayest and the Book of Arda Wiraz, Ahriman and the dews were utterly real, and are described as being potentially catastrophic. "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation. In such less philosophical representations, the dews are hordes of devils with a range of individual powers ranging from the almost benign to the most malign. They collectively rush out at nightfall to do their worst, which includes every possible form of corruption at every possible level of human existence. Their destructiveness is evident not only in disease, pain, and grief but also in cosmic events such as falling stars and climatic events such as droughts, cyclones and earthquakes. They are sometimes described as having anthropomorphic properties such as faces and feet, or given animal-like properties such as claws and body hair. They may produce semen, and may even mate with humans as in the tale of Jam and Jamag (Bundahishn 14B. 1).

But with the exception of the Book of Arda Wiraz, the dewas are not generally described as a force to be feared. With fundamental optimism,[15][3] the texts describe how the dews may be kept in check, ranging from cursing them to the active participation in life through good thoughts, words and deeds. Many of the medieval texts develop ideas already expressed in the Vendidad ("given against the demons"). The Vendidad or Videvdat is a collection of texts within the greater compendium of the Avesta.

A fire (cf. Adur) is an effective weapon against the dews, and keeping a hearth fire burning is a means to protect the home. Atar ( ātar, Avestan) is the Zoroastrian concept for "burning and unburning fire" and "visible and invisible fire" (Mirza 1987389 The dews are "particularly attracted by the organic productions of human beings, from excretion, reproduction, sex, and death. "[3] Prayer and other recitation of the liturgy - in particular the recitation of Yasht 1 (so Sad-dar 57) - is effective in keeping the demons at bay. The ae Yashts ( ae Yašt s are a collection of twenty-one hymns in Younger Avestan. [16] Demons are attracted by chatter at mealtimes and when silence is broken a demon takes the place of the angel at one's side. [17] According to Shayest-ne-Shayest 9. 8, eating at all after nightfall is not advisable since the night is the time of demons. In the 9th century Rivayats (65. 14), the demons are described to issue out at night to wreak mayhem, but forced back into the underworld by the divine glory (khvarenah) at sunrise.

The Zoroastrianism of the medieval texts is unambiguous with respect to which force is the superior. Evil cannot create and is hence has a lower priority in the cosmic order (asha). According to Denkard 5. 24. 21a, the protection of the yazatas is ultimately greater than the power of the demons. Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept The dews are agents ("procurers - vashikano - of success") of Ahriman (Avestan Angra Mainyu) in the contests that will continue until the end of time, at which time the fiend will become invisible and (God's) creatures will become pure. "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation. (Dadestan-i Denig 59)

But until the final renovation of the world, mankind "stands between the yazads and the dēws; the [yazads] are immortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies (mēnōg), men are immortal in essence but separable from their bodies (moving from gētīg to mēnōg condition), but dēws are mortal in essence and inseparable from their bodies, which may be destroyed. Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept "[3]

In addition to the six arch-demons (see above) that oppose the six Amesha Spentas, numerous other figures appear in scripture and tradition. According to Bundahishn XXVII. 12, the six arch-demons have cooperators (hamkars), arranged in a hierarchy (not further specified) similar to that of the yazatas. Yazata is the Avestan language word for a Zoroastrian concept These are "dews [. . . ] created by the sins that creatures commit. " (Bundahishn XXVII. 51)

Other entities include:

The most destructive of these are Astiwihad, the demon of death that casts the noose of mortality around men's necks at birth, and Az, who most capable of destroying the "innate wisdom" of man. Az is thus the cause of heresy and blinds the righteous man from being able to discern the truth and falsehood.

In the Shahnameh

A list of ten demons is provided in the Shahnameh:[18] Besides the afore-mentioned Az "greed", Kashm "wrath" (MP: Aeshma), Nang "dishonor," Niaz "want," and Rashk "envy", the epic poem includes Kin "vengeance", Nammam "tell-tale", Do-ruy "two-face", napak-din "heresy", and (not explicitly named) ungratefulness. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc Aeshma ( Aēšma) is the Younger Avestan name of Zoroastrianism's demon of "wrath

Some of the entities that in the Middle Persian texts are demons, are in the Shahnameh attributes of demons. So for instance, varuna "backwards" or "inside out", reflecting that they tend to do the opposite of what they are asked to do. Although Ferdowsi generally portrays divs as being distinct from humans, the poet also uses the word to denote "evil people. Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. "[18]

One of the more popular stories from the Shahnameh is that of Rostam and the Dīv-e Sapīd, the "white demon" of Mazandaran, who blinds Rostam's men but who are then cured with the blood of the demon's gall. For the historical general who fought at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah for the Sassanid Empire, also mentioned in the Shahnameh, see Rostam Farrokhzād In the Persian epic of Shahnameh Div-e Sepid is the chieftain of Divs (Persian for Demons of Mazandaran. Mazandaran is a Caspian

In popular culture

References

  1. ^ a b c Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p. Lionheart Legacy of the Crusader is a Action role-playing game, developed for the PC by Reflexive Entertainment, and released in August 13, Reflexive Entertainment is a computer game developer based in Lake Forest California. The Black Isle ( Scottish Gaelic an t-Eilean Dubh ən̴̪ tʲelan d̪̊uh is an eastern area of the Highland local government council area  599.
  2. ^ a b c d Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.  601.
  3. ^ a b c d e Williams 1996.
  4. ^ Gershevitch 1975, pp.  79-80.
  5. ^ Lommel 1930, pp.  88ff.
  6. ^ Nyberg 1938, p.  96.
  7. ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1953, pp.  27-28.
  8. ^ Widengren 1954, p.  15,29.
  9. ^ Dhalla 1938, p.  21.
  10. ^ Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, pp.  599-600.
  11. ^ Duchesne-Guillemin 1982, p.  672
  12. ^ Kent 1937, p.  297.
  13. ^ Herrenschmidt & Kellens 1993, p.  600.
  14. ^ Shaked 1967, p.  264.
  15. ^ Stausberg 2004, p.  77.
  16. ^ Stausberg 2004, p.  16.
  17. ^ Stausberg 2004, p.  19.
  18. ^ a b Omidsalar 1996.

Bibliography

Dictionary

daeva

-noun

  1. (Zoroastrianism) Avestan language term for a particular sort of supernatural entity with disagreeable characteristic.
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