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For other uses, see DDT (disambiguation).
DDT
Chemical structure of DDT
IUPAC name 4,4'-(2,2,2-trichloroethane-
1,1-diyl)bis(chlorobenzene)
Identifiers
CAS number [50-29-3]
SMILES Clc1ccc(cc1)C(c2ccc(Cl)cc2)C(Cl)(Cl)Cl
Properties
Molecular formula C14H9Cl5
Molar mass 354. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Molar mass, symbol M, is the Mass of one mole of a substance ( Chemical element or Chemical compound) 49 g/mol
Density 1. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different 55 g/cm³ [1]
Melting point

108. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 5–109 °C [1]
Boiling point

185–187 °C (at 7 Pa) [1]
Hazards
EU classification Yes
Main hazards T, N
R-phrases R25 R40 R48/25 R50/53
S-phrases (S1/2) S22 S36/37 S45 S60 S61
LD50 113 mg/kg (rat)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for
materials in their standard state
(at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox disclaimer and references

DDT (from its trivial name, Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane) is one of the best-known synthetic pesticides and has a long, unique, controversial history. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Council Directive 67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of laws regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification packaging and labelling Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the Safety, Health and welfare of people engaged in R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous R-phrases (short for Risk Phrases) are defined in Annex III of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Nature of special risks attributed to dangerous S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. S-phrases are defined in Annex IV of European Union Directive 67/548/EEC: Safety advice concerning dangerous substances and preparations. In Toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for “Lethal Dose 50%” or LCt50 (Lethal Concentration & Time of a In Chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 Kilopascals exactly A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest.

DDT was first synthesized in 1874, but its insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1939. In the early years of World War II, DDT was used with great effect to control mosquitoes spreading malaria, typhus, and other insect-borne diseases among both military and civilian populations. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller of Geigy Pharmaceutical was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods. Paul Hermann Müller also known as Pauly Mueller ( January 12, 1899 &ndash October 12, 1965) was a Swiss Chemist and Nobel Novartis International AG is a multinational Pharmaceutical company based in Basel Switzerland that manufactures drugs such as Clozapine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " "[2] After the war, DDT was made available for use as an agricultural insecticide, and soon its production and use skyrocketed. An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms [3]

In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was published. Silent Spring is a book written by Rachel Carson and published by Houghton Mifflin in September 1962 Rachel Louise Carson (May 27 1907 – April 14 1964 was an American marine biologist and Nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global The book catalogued the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on ecology or human health. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled [4] Its publication was one of the signature events in the birth of the environmental movement. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Silent Spring resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led to most uses of DDT being banned in the US in 1972. [5] DDT was subsequently banned for agricultural use worldwide under the Stockholm Convention, but its limited use in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent organic pollutants (POPs In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from For vector control of induction motors see Motor controller Vector control is any method to limit or eradicate the Mammals Birds [6]

Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the US ban on DDT is cited by scientists as a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle in the contiguous US. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 ( et seq or ESA is the most wide-ranging of the dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s The Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a Bird of prey found in North America that is most recognizable as the national bird and [7]

Contents

Properties and chemistry

DDT is an organochlorine insecticide, similar in structure to the pesticides dicofol and methoxychlor. Applications The simplest form of organochlorides are chlorinated Hydrocarbons These consist of simple Hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen atoms have Dicofol is an Organochlorine Pesticide that is chemically related to DDT. Methoxychlor is a synthetic Organochlorine used as an Insecticide. It is a highly hydrophobic, colorless, crystalline solid with a weak, chemical odor. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating It is nearly insoluble in water but has a good solubility in most organic solvents, fats, and oils. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. Water ( H2[[oxygen O]] H OH) is the most abundant Molecule on Earth 's surface composing of about 70% of the Earth's surface as Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is DDT does not occur naturally, but is produced by the reaction of chloral (CCl3CHO) with chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) in the presence of sulfuric acid, which acts as a catalyst. Chloral, also known as trichloroacetaldehyde is the Organic compound with the formula Cl3CCHO Chlorobenzene is an Aromatic Organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5Cl Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst Trade names that DDT has been marketed under include include Anofex, Cesarex, Chlorophenothane, Dedelo, Dicophane, Dinocide, Didimac, Digmar, ENT 1506, Genitox, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gexarex, Gyron, Hildit, Ixodex, Kopsol, Kybosh, Neocid, OMS 16, Pentachlorin, Pennsalt, Puritan, Rukseam, R50, and Zerdane.

Isomers and Related Compounds

o,p-DDT, a minor component in commercial DDT.
o,p-DDT, a minor component in commercial DDT.

Commercial DDT is actually a mixture of several closely related compounds. The major component (77%) is the p,p isomer which is pictured at the top of this article. Arene substitution patterns are part of Organic chemistry IUPAC nomenclature and pinpoint the position of Substituents other than Hydrogen in This article is about the chemical concept For "isomerism" of atomic nuclei see Nuclear isomer. The o,p isomer (pictured to the right) is also present in significant amounts (15%). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) make up the balance. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (11- bis -(4-chlorophenyl-22-dichloroethene is the full name of DDE Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD is an organochlorine Insecticide that is slightly irritating to the skin DDE and DDD are also the major metabolites and breakdown products of DDT in the environment. [3] The term "total DDT" is often used to refer to the sum of all DDT related compounds (p,p-DDT, o,p-DDT, DDE, and DDD) in a sample.

Production and use statistics

From 1950 to 1980, when DDT was extensively used in agriculture, more than 40,000 tonnes were used each year worldwide,[8] and it has been estimated that a total of 1. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. 8 million tonnes of DDT have been produced globally since the 1940s. [9] In the U. S. , where it was manufactured by Montrose Chemical Company and Velsicol Chemical Corporation,[10] production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. After World War II, Montrose Chemical Corporation of California near Torrance California began producing DDT, the new “wonder pesticide Velsicol Chemical Corporation is a Rosemont Illinois based Chemical company founded in 1931 that specializes in Plasticizers It has approximately 450 [3] More than 600,000 tonnes (1. 35 billion lbs) were applied in the U. S. before the 1972 ban, with usage peaking in 1959 with about 36,000 tonnes applied that year. [11]

Currently about 1,000 tonnes of DDT are used annually worldwide in vector control operations. [8] India and China are only countries still producing and exporting the chemical. [12]

Mechanism of action

DDT is moderately toxic, with a rat LD50 of 113 mg/kg,[13] and has potent insecticidal properties; it kills by opening sodium ion channels in insect neurons, causing the neuron to fire spontaneously. In Toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for “Lethal Dose 50%” or LCt50 (Lethal Concentration & Time of a Sodium channels are Integral membrane proteins that form Ion channels, conducting sodium ions ( Na+) through a cell's Plasma membrane Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information This leads to spasms and eventual death. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene may be resistant to DDT and other similar insecticides. DDT resistance is also conferred by up-regulation of genes expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect species. Cytochrome P450 (abbreviated CYP, P450, infrequently CYP450) is a very large and diverse superfamily of Hemoproteins found in all Domains [14]

History

Commercial product containing 5% DDT
Commercial product containing 5% DDT

First synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler,[15] DDT's insecticidal properties were not discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. Othmar Zeidler ( 1859 - 26 June 1911) was a German Austrian chemist Paul Hermann Müller also known as Pauly Mueller ( January 12, 1899 &ndash October 12, 1965) was a Swiss Chemist and Nobel The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature [2]

Use in the 1940s and 1950s

DDT is the best-known of a number of chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. It was used extensively during World War II by Allied troops in Europe and the Pacific as well as certain civilian populations to control the insect vectors for typhus and malaria (nearly eliminating typhus as a result). World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Entire cities in Italy were dusted to control the typhus carried by lice. Lice (singular louse) ( order Phthiraptera) are an order of over 3000 Species of wingless Insects three of which are classified DDT also sharply reduced the incidence of biting midges in Great Britain, and was used extensively as an agricultural insecticide after 1945. Ceratopogonidae, or biting Midges (including what are called in the United States, no-see-ums, midgies, Sand flies

DDT played a small role in the final elimination of malaria in Europe and North America, as malaria had already been eliminated from much of the developed world before the advent of DDT through the use of a range of public health measures and generally increasing health and living standards. [16] One CDC physician involved in the United States' DDT spraying campaign said of the effort that "we kicked a dying dog. "[17] But in countries without these advances, it was critical in their eradication of the disease.

In 1955, the World Health Organization commenced a program to eradicate malaria worldwide, relying largely on DDT. The program was initially highly successful, eliminating the disease in "Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific" and dramatically reducing mortality in Sri Lanka and India. [18] However resistance soon emerged in many insect populations as a consequence of widespread agricultural use of DDT. In many areas, early victories against malaria were partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission even increased. [19] The program was successful in eliminating malaria only in areas with "high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission". [20]

DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure. It was not pursued at all in sub-Saharan Africa due to these perceived difficulties, with the result that mortality rates in the area were never reduced to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the resurgence of the disease as a result of microbe resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium falciparum is a Protozoan Parasite, one of the species of Plasmodium that cause Malaria in humans The goal of eradication was abandoned in 1969, and attention was focused on controlling and treating the disease. Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation, but mostly because mosquitoes were developing resistance to DDT. [19] Efforts were shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions. A mosquito net offers Protection against Mosquitos flies, and other Insects and thus against diseases such as Malaria. [21][20]

Silent Spring and the U. S. ban

As early as the 1940s, scientists had begun expressing concern over possible hazards associated with DDT, and in the 1950s the government began tightening some of the regulations governing its use. [11] However, these early events received little attention, and it was not until 1957 when the New York Times reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York that the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author, Rachel Carson. There is also a Town of Nassau in Rensselaer County. Nassau County is a suburban county in the New York Metropolitan Rachel Louise Carson (May 27 1907 – April 14 1964 was an American marine biologist and Nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global William Shawn, editor of The New Yorker, urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her famous book Silent Spring, published in 1962. William Shawn ( August 31, 1907 – December 8, 1992) was an American magazine editor who edited The New Yorker The New Yorker is an American Magazine that publishes reportage commentary criticism essays fiction satire cartoons and poetry Silent Spring is a book written by Rachel Carson and published by Houghton Mifflin in September 1962 [22] The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were also endangering human health. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. [4]

Silent Spring was a best seller, and public reaction to it launched the modern environmental movement in the United States. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. The year after it appeared, President Kennedy ordered his Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of The report the committee issued "add[ed] up to a fairly thorough-going vindication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring thesis," in the words of the journal Science,[23] and recommended a phaseout of "persistent toxic pesticides". Science 80 was a general science magazine published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS [24] DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of winning a ban on DDT. Environmental Defense Fund or EDF (formerly known as Environmental Defense) is a US -based nonprofit environmental advocacy group. Victor Yannacone, Charles Wurster, Art Cooley and others associated with inception of EDF had all witnessed bird kills or declines in bird populations and suspected that DDT was the cause. Victor Yannacone is a controversial pioneering environmental attorney, who played leading roles in successful campaigns to ban DDT in the U In their campaign against the chemical, EDF petitioned the government for a ban and filed a series of lawsuits. [25] Around this time, toxicologist David Peakall was measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells. Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of Chemicals on living organisms David Beaumont Peakall ( 17 March 1931 - 18 August 2001) was an internationally recognised Toxicologist. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (11- bis -(4-chlorophenyl-22-dichloroethene is the full name of DDE The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a The California Condor ( Gymnogyps californianus) is a North American Species of Bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae

In response to an EDF suit, the U. S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT. After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger to human health and wildlife. William Doyle Ruckelshaus (born July 24, 1932 in Indianapolis Indiana) is an American attorney and civil servant The Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency is the head of the United States federal government's Environmental Protection Agency, and is thus responsible [11] However, the findings of these staff members were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the United States Department of Agriculture, whom many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and tended to minimize concerns about human health and wildlife. The decision not to ban thus created public controversy.

The EPA then held seven months of hearings in 1971-1972, with scientists giving evidence both for and against the use of DDT. In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced the cancellation of most uses of DDT—an exemption allowed for public health uses under some conditions. [11] Despite the ban on its domestic use, DDT continued to be produced in the US for foreign markets until as late as 1985, when over 300 tonnes were exported. [9] Immediately after the cancellation was announced, both EDF and the DDT manufactures filed suit against the EPA, with the industry seeking to overturn the ban, and EDF seeking a comprehensive ban. The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, known informally as the D [11]

The U. S. DDT ban took place amid a climate of growing public mistrust of industry, with the Surgeon General issuing a report on smoking in 1964, the Cuyahoga River catching fire in 1969, the fiasco surrounding the use of diethylstilbestrol (DES), and the well-publicized decline in the bald eagle population. Overview The Surgeon General is nominated by the US President and confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. Smoking is a practice where a substance most commonly Tobacco, is burned and the Smoke tasted or inhaled The Cuyahoga River (ˌkaɪəˈhɔgə or kuy-a-HO-ga) is located in Northeast Ohio in the United States. Diethylstilbestrol ( DES) is a drug, an orally active synthetic nonsteroidal Estrogen that was first synthesized in 1938 The Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a Bird of prey found in North America that is most recognizable as the national bird and [24]

Restrictions on usage

In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use of DDT was banned in most developed countries. DDT was first banned in Norway and Sweden in 1970 and the US in 1972, but was not banned in the United Kingdom until 1984. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The use of DDT in vector control has not been banned, but it has been largely replaced by less persistent, and more expensive, alternative insecticides. Persistent organic pollutants ( POP s are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic

The Stockholm Convention, ratified in 2001 and effective as of 17 May 2004, outlawed several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted the use of DDT to vector control. Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent organic pollutants (POPs Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Persistent organic pollutants ( POP s are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic The Convention was signed by 98 countries and is endorsed by most environmental groups. Recognizing that a total elimination of DDT use in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible because there are few affordable or effective alternatives for controlling malaria, the public health use of DDT was exempted from the ban until such alternatives are developed. Malaria Foundation International states:

The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations over two years ago. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before. For vector control of induction motors see Motor controller Vector control is any method to limit or eradicate the Mammals Birds [26]

About 1,000 tonnes of DDT per year is still used today in countries where mosquito-borne malaria is a serious health problem. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including [27] Use of DDT in public health to control mosquitoes is primarily done inside buildings and through inclusion in household products and selective spraying; this greatly reduces environmental damage compared to the earlier widespread use of DDT in agriculture. It also reduces the risk of resistance to DDT. [28] This use only requires a small fraction of that previously used in agriculture; for example, to spray 1,700 homes, the required amount of DDT is estimated to be roughly equal to the amount that might have been used on 0. 4 km² (100 acres) of cotton during a typical growing season in the U. S. [29] Despite the worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT, some farmers in India are known to still use it in crop production. [30]

Environmental impact

DDT is a persistent organic pollutant with a half life of 2-15 years, and is immobile in most soils. Persistent organic pollutants ( POP s are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Its half life is 56 days in lake water and approximately 28 days in river water. Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and biodegradation (aerobic and anaerobic). Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms These processes generally occur slowly. Breakdown products in the soil environment are DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-dichlorodiphenyl)ethylene) and DDD (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane), which are also highly persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (11- bis -(4-chlorophenyl-22-dichloroethene is the full name of DDE Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD is an organochlorine Insecticide that is slightly irritating to the skin [31] These products together are known as "total DDT". DDT and its breakdown products are transported from warmer regions of the world to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation, where they then accumulate in the region's food web. The Arctic is the Region around the Earth 's North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. Global distillation or the grasshopper effect is the geochemical process by which certain chemicals most notably Persistent organic pollutants (POPs Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. [32]

DDT and its metabolic products DDE and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptors having a higher concentration of the chemicals, stored mainly in body fat, than other animals sharing the same environment. Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification, or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the Pesticide Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. In the United States, human blood and fat tissue samples collected in the early 1970s showed detectable levels in all samples. A later study of blood samples collected in the latter half of the 1970s (after the U. S. DDT ban) showed that blood levels were declining further, but DDT or metabolites were still seen in a very high proportion of the samples. Biomonitoring conducted by the CDC as recently as 2002 shows that more than half of subjects tested had detectable levels of DDT or metabolites in their blood,[33] and of the 700+ milk samples tested by the USDA in 2005, 85% had detectable levels of DDE. [34]

DDT is a toxicant across a certain range of phyla. A toxicant is a chemical compound that has an effect on organisms A phylum ( Plural: phyla) is a Taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. In particular, DDT is a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle in the 1950s and 1960s[35][7] as well as the brown pelican[36] and the peregrine falcon. The Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a Bird of prey found in North America that is most recognizable as the national bird and The brown pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis) is the smallest of the eight species of Pelican, although it is a large bird in nearly every other regard The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a DDT and its breakdown products are toxic to embryos and can disrupt calcium absorption, thereby impairing eggshell quality. [37] Studies in the 1960s and 1970s failed to find a mechanism for the hypothesized thinning. [38] However, more recent studies in the 1990s and 2000s have laid the blame at the feet of DDE. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (11- bis -(4-chlorophenyl-22-dichloroethene is the full name of DDE [39][40] Some studies have shown that although DDE levels have fallen dramatically, eggshell thickness remains 10–12 percent thinner than before DDT was first used. [41] DDT is also highly toxic to aquatic life, including crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. Crayfish, crawfish, crawdads, or crodgers are freshwater Crustaceans resembling small Lobsters to which they are closely Daphnia are small Planktonic Crustaceans between.2 and 5  mm in length True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two DDT may be moderately toxic to some amphibian species, especially in the larval stages. Prehistoric amphibian Amphibians (class Amphibia such as Frogs Toads Salamanders Newts Gymnophiona, Sirens and In addition to acute toxic effects, DDT may bioaccumulate significantly in fish and other aquatic species, leading to long-term exposure to high concentrations. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at ftudruinsubstance is lost

Effects on human health

The effects of DDT on human health are disputed since studies have yielded conflicting results.

Toxicity

Acute

Chronic

Cancer

Breast cancer

Several studies have looked for associations between breast cancer and DDT exposure. Breast cancer is a Cancer that starts in the cells of the Breast in women and men Almost all studies have measured DDT or DDE blood levels at the time of breast cancer diagnosis or after. While individual studies have yielded conflicting results, taken as a whole, the studies of this design "do not support the hypothesis that exposure to DDT is an important risk factor for breast cancer. "[56] These types of studies have been extensively reviewed:

A new study in Environmental Health Perspectives found a strong association between exposure to the p,p-isomer of DDT early in life and breast cancer later in life. Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP is a peer-reviewed journal of the United States' National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, published monthly Exposure to the o,p'-isomer was negatively correlated with breast cancer (i. e. a protective effect was observed), and no association was observed for DDE. Unlike the studies discussed in the reviews cited above, this was prospective study in which blood samples were collected from young California mothers in the 1960s while DDT was still in use, and their breast cancer status was then tracked. (As discussed above, previous studies measured exposure more recently, long after DDT was banned in the US. ) In addition to suggesting that exposure to the p,p-isomer of DDT is the more significant risk factor of breast cancer, the study also suggests that the timing of exposure is critical. For the subset of women born more than 14 years prior to the introduction of DDT into US agriculture, there was no association between DDT levels and breast cancer. However, for women born more recently—and thus exposed earlier in life—the most p,p-DDT exposed third of women had a fivefold increase in breast cancer incidence over the least exposed third, after correcting for the protective effect of o,p-DDT. [56][59]

Developmental and reproductive toxicity

DDT and its breakdown product DDE, like other organochlorines, have been shown to have xenoestrogenic activity; meaning they are chemically similar enough to estrogens to trigger hormonal responses in animals. Estrogens (US otherwise oestrogens or œstrogens) are a group of Steroid compounds named for their importance in the Estrous cycle, This endocrine disrupting activity has been observed when DDT is used in laboratory studies involving mice and rats as test subjects, and available epidemiological evidence indicates that these effects may be occurring in humans as a result of DDT exposure. Endocrine disruptors (sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents) are Exogenous substances that act like Hormones in the Endocrine system A mouse (plural mice) is a small Animal that belongs to one Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea In Biostatistics or Psychological statistics, a research subject is any object or phenomenon that is observed for purposes of research Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the Health and Illness of populations and serves as the foundation and Logic of interventions made in the In areas where DDT is used for malaria control, infants can be exposed via breastmilk in levels that exceed the W. H. O's acceptable daily intake value for DDT. Acceptable daily intake or ADI is a measure of the amount of a specific substance (usually a Food additive, or a residue of a veterinary drug or pesticide in [60] [61]

DDT use against malaria

The World Health Organization estimates there are between 300 million and 500 million cases of malaria every year, resulting in more than 1 million deaths,[77] with about 90% of these deaths occurring in Africa, mostly to children under the age of 5.

Most prior use of DDT was in agriculture, but the controlled use of DDT continues to this day for the purposes of public health. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Current use for disease control requires only a small fraction of the amounts previously used in agriculture, and at these levels the pesticide is much less likely to cause environmental problems. Residual house spraying involves the treatment of all interior walls and ceilings with insecticide, and is particularly effective against mosquitoes, which favour indoor resting before or after feeding. Advocated as the mainstay of malaria eradication programmes in the late 1950s and 1960s, DDT remains a major component of control programmes in southern African states, though many countries have abandoned or curtailed their spraying activities. South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique and Ecuador are examples of countries that have very successfully reduced malaria infestations with DDT. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics.

Indeed, the problems facing health officials in their fight against malaria neither begin nor end with DDT. Experts tie the spread of malaria to numerous factors, including a chronic lack of funds in the countries worst hit by malaria, and the resistance of the malaria parasite itself to the drugs traditionally used to treat the illness. [78] According to Richard Tren, "Malaria surged through Africa in the 1990s, fueled by resistance to chloroquine and other historically effective drugs. Richard Tren is Director of Africa Fighting Malaria, an analyst for the Free Market Foundation, and a Research Fellow of the Environment Unit at the Institute "[79]

The growth of resistance to DDT and the fear that DDT may be harmful both to humans and the environment led donor countries and various national governments to restrict or curtail the use of DDT in vector control. In Epidemiology, a vector is an Organism that does not cause Disease itself but which transmits Infection by conveying Pathogens from At the same time, use of DDT as an agricultural insecticide was often unrestricted, and restrictions were often evaded, especially in developing countries where malaria is rife, so that resistance continued to grow. [19]

A commentary on the current state of global malaria control was published in the May 2007 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association. JAMA The Journal of the American Medical Association is an international peer-reviewed general Medical journal, published 48 times per year by the American The authors identify "3 critical factors that are currently absent or in too short supply" for making progress in the fight against malaria: "leadership, management, and money," while making no mention of restrictions limiting the use of DDT. They also single out resistance of the malaria parasite to chloroquine as the cause of increasing malaria mortality in sub-Saharan Africa, not restrictions on DDT. [80]

Today there is debate among professionals working on malaria control concerning the appropriate role of DDT. The range of disagreement is relatively narrow: Few believe either that large scale spraying should be resumed or that the use of DDT should be abandoned altogether. The debate focuses on the relative merits of DDT and alternative pesticides as well as complementary use of interior wall spraying, insecticide-treated bed-nets, and other mosquito control techniques.

Since the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, the WHO has shifted its position in this controversy, from primary reliance on bed-nets to a policy more favorable to DDT. is a Japanese Physician and Public health expert who is the director of the World Health Organization 's Malaria program Until an announcement made on 16 September 2006, the policy had recommended indoor spraying of insecticides in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, but a new policy also advocates it where continuous, intense transmission of the disease causes the most deaths. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. [81] In 2007, the WHO clarified its position, saying it is "very much concerned with health consequences from use of DDT" and reaffirmed its commitment to phasing out the use of DDT. [82]

Overall effectiveness of DDT against malaria

In the period from 1934-1955 there were 1. 5 million cases of malaria in Sri Lanka, resulting in 80,000 deaths. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island After the country invested in an extensive anti-mosquito program with DDT, there were only 17 cases reported in 1963. Thereafter the program was halted, and malaria in Sri Lanka rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. Although the country resumed spraying with DDT, many of the local mosquitoes had acquired resistance to DDT in the interim, presumably because of the continued use of DDT for crop protection, so the program was not nearly as effective as it had been before. Switching to the more-expensive malathion in 1977 reduced the malaria infection rate to 3,000 by 2004. Malathion is an Organophosphate Parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to Cholinesterase. A recent study notes, "DDT and Malathion are no longer recommended since An. culicifacies and An. subpictus has been found resistant. "[83]

A 2004 editorial in the British Medical Journal argues that the campaign against malaria is failing, that funding of malaria control should therefore be increased, and that use of DDT should be considered since DDT has "a remarkable safety record when used in small quantities for indoor spraying in endemic regions. "[84]

One insecticide supply company states on its website:

DDT is still one of the first and most commonly used insecticides for residual spraying, because of its low cost, high effectiveness, persistence and relative safety to humans. [. . . ] In the past several years, we supplied DDT 75% WDP to Madagascar, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, South Africa, Namibia, Solomon Island, Papua New Guinea, Algeria, Thailand, and Myanmar for Malaria Control project, and won a good reputation from WHO and relevant countries' government. [85]

According to DDT advocate Donald Roberts, malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a [29] Other mosquito-borne diseases are also on the rise. Roger Bate claims that until the 1970s, DDT was used to eradicate the Aedes aegypti mosquito from most tropical regions of the Americas. The yellow fever mosquito, Stegomyia aegypti (= Aedes aegypti, = Aedes (Stegomyia aegypti) is a Mosquito The reinvasion of Aedes aegypti since has brought devastating outbreaks of dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever, and a renewed threat of urban yellow fever. Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease [86]

Mosquito resistance to DDT

Although the publication of Silent Spring undoubtedly influenced the U. S. ban on DDT in 1972, the reduced usage of DDT in malaria eradication began the decade before because of the emergence of DDT-resistant mosquitoes. Paul Russell, a former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observed in 1956 that eradication programs had to be wary of relying on DDT for too long as "resistance has appeared [after] six or seven years. "[18]

In some areas DDT has lost much of its effectiveness, especially in areas such as India where outdoor transmission is the predominant form. According to one article by V. P. Sharma, "The declining effectiveness of DDT is a result of several factors which frequently operate in tandem. The first and the most important factor is vector resistance to DDT. All populations of the main vector, An. culicifacies have become resistant to DDT. " In India, with its outdoor sleeping habits and frequent night duties, "the excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission. "[87]

Due to this DDT resistance, in Sri Lanka, parts of India, Pakistan, Turkey and Central America, DDT has already been replaced by organophosphate or carbamate insecticides, e. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. Carbamates, or Urethanes are a group of Organic compounds sharing a common Functional group with the general structure -NH(COO- g. malathion or bendiocarb. Malathion is an Organophosphate Parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to Cholinesterase. Bendiocarb is an acutely toxic Carbamate Insecticide used in Public health and Agriculture and is effective against a wide range of nuisance [88]

According to a pesticide industry newsletter, DDT is obsolete for malarial prevention in India not only owing to concerns over its toxicity, but because it has largely lost its effectiveness. Use of DDT for agricultural purposes was banned in India in 1989, and its use for anti-malarial purposes has been declining. Use of DDT in urban areas of India has halted completely. Food supplies and eggshells of large predator birds still show high DDT levels. [89] Parasitology journal articles confirm that malarial vector mosquitoes have become resistant to DDT and HCH in most parts of India. [90] Nevertheless, DDT is still manufactured and used in India. [91] One study concludes "The overall results of the study revealed that DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor. "[92]

The initial appearance of this resistance was largely due to the much greater quantity of DDT which had been used for agricultural spraying, rather than the relatively insignificant amounts used for disease prevention. According to one study which attempted to quantify the lives saved due to banning agricultural use of DDT and thereby slowing the spread of DDT resistance: "Correlating the use of DDT in El Salvador with renewed malaria transmission, it can be estimated that at current rates each kilo of insecticide added to the environment will generate 105 new cases of malaria. "[19]

Advocates for continuing use of DDT against malaria state that "Limited use of DDT for public health has continued to be effective in areas where it is used inside homes. As DDT's chief property is repellency, mosquitoes often avoid the DDT treated homes altogether. In so doing, they avoid the exposure that promotes resistance as well. DDT resistance exists in West Africa and in other malarial areas, such as India. Isolated occurrences of DDT resistance have occurred in South Africa, and South Africa continues to monitor for resistance. As the various Departments of Health that use it carefully control DDT use, it is unlikely that resistance will emerge as a major problem. "[93]

Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes trapped while exiting windows in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (the WHO susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 86. KwaZulu-Natal (kwɑːˌzuːluː nəˈtɑːl often referred to as " KZN " is a province of South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa 5% in the same species caught in the open. The authors concluded that "Finding DDT resistance in the vector An. arabiensis, close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector An. funestus Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa. " [94]

The avoidance of DDT-sprayed walls by mosquitoes is sometimes touted as a beneficial aspect of DDT. [92] For example, a 2007 study published in PLoS ONE reported that DDT-resistant mosquitoes still avoided DDT-treated huts, while entering huts treated with other insecticides to which they were not resistant. PLoS ONE is an open access, Online Scientific journal from the Public Library of Science (ISSN 1817-101X The researchers argued that DDT was the best pesticide for use in IRS (even though it did not afford the most protection from mosquitos out of the three test chemicals) because the others pesticides worked primarily by killing or irritating mosquitoes—modes of action the authors presume mosquitoes will develop resistance to. [95] Others have argued that the avoidance of DDT sprayed walls by mosquitoes is detrimental to the actual eradication of the disease. [96] Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires a long period of contact before mosquitoes pick up a lethal dose; however its irritant property makes them fly off before this occurs. "For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT. " [88]

Residents' resistance to use of DDT

In areas where resistance from residents prevents a high percentage of the homes being effectively sprayed, the effectiveness of the intervention is greatly reduced. [88][18] Many residents resist spraying of DDT for various reasons. For instance, the smell lingers,[97] and DDT leaves a stain on the walls. [98][96][88][97][99] While that stain makes it easier to check whether the room has been sprayed it causes some villagers to avoid spraying of their homes [18][99][100][88] or to resurface the wall, which eliminates the residual insecticidal effect of the spraying. [96][99][100] "Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin are … much more acceptable to householders because they leave no visible deposit on walls… therefore rates of refusal of spraying by householders are lower with pyrethroids than with DDT. A pyrethroid is a synthetic Chemical compound similar to the natural chemical Pyrethrins produced by the flowers of Pyrethrums ( Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Deltamethrin is a Pyrethroid Ester Insecticide. Usage Deltamethrin products are among some of the most popular and widely used Lambda-cyhalothrin is a Pyrethroid insecticide "[88]

In addition, DDT is not suitable for this type of spraying in Western-style plastered or painted walls, only traditional dwellings with unpainted walls made of mud, sticks, dung, thatch, clay, or cement. The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and [94][97][100][99]As rural areas of South Africa become more prosperous, there is a shift towards Western style housing, leaving fewer homes suitable for DDT spraying, and necessitating the use of alternative insecticides. [100]

Other villagers object to DDT spraying because it does not kill cockroaches[88] or bedbugs;[96] rather, it excites such pests making them more active,[97][100][99][98][18] so that often use of another insecticide is additionally required. Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. A bedbug (or bed bug) is a small nocturnal Insect of the family Cimicidae that lives by Hematophagy, or by feeding on the Blood [100] Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin and lambdacyhalothrin, on the other hand, are more acceptable to residents because they kill these nuisance insects as well as mosquitoes. [88] DDT has also been known to kill beneficial insects, such as wasps that kill caterpillars that, unchecked, destroy thatched roofs. [18]

As a result, says Dr. Avertino Barreto, chief of infectious disease control in Mozambique, resistance to DDT spraying is "homegrown", not due to "pressure from environmentalists". An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa "They only want us to use DDT on poor, rural black people," he says. "So whoever suggests DDT use, I say, 'Fine, I'll start spraying in your house first. ' "[97]

Human exposure associated with DDT spraying for disease vectors

In the low income areas where malaria eradication is necessary, it is almost impossible to ensure that DDT intended for disease prevention does not get diverted to use on crops, on a totally unregulated basis. "The consequent insecticidal residues in crops at levels unacceptable for the export trade have been an important factor in recent bans of DDT for malaria control in several tropical countries". [88] Adding to this problem is a lack of skilled personnel and supervision. [96]

Evidence for exposure to DDT is seen in South Africa[101][102], where in contrast to areas where DDT use has ceased (even where it was used heavily), in areas where DDT is currently in use ostensibly in small amounts for malaria prevention only, DDT levels in men and women were significantly higher than the allowable daily intake. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa [99] Breast milk from regions where DDT is used for malaria control contains enough DDT to greatly exceed the allowable daily intake of breast feeding infants. Breast milk refers to the Milk produced by a mother to feed her baby [103][61] These levels have been associated with neurological abnormalities in babies ingesting relatively large quantities of DDT in their milk[88] although toxicity via this mode of intake has not been proved. [99]

Some researchers have suggested that the negative health effects of exposure to DDT might outweigh the health benefits afforded by anti-malarial properties. For example, scientists with the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences argued in The Lancet that "Although DDT is generally not toxic to human beings and was banned mainly for ecological reasons, subsequent research has shown that exposure to DDT at amounts that would be needed in malaria control might cause preterm birth and early weaning, abrogating the benefit of reducing infant mortality from malaria. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS is one of 27 Institutes and Centers of the National Institutes of Health (NIHwhich is a component of the Department . . DDT might be useful in controlling malaria, but the evidence of its adverse effects on human health needs appropriate research on whether it achieves a favourable balance of risk versus benefit. "[21]

Criticism of restrictions on DDT use

There are claims that restrictions on the use of DDT in vector control have resulted in substantial numbers of unnecessary deaths due to malaria. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Estimates for the number of deaths that have been caused by an alleged lack of availability of DDT range from hundreds of thousands, according to Nicholas Kristof,[104] to much higher figures. Robert Gwadz of the National Institutes of Health said in 2007 that "The ban on DDT may have killed 20 million children. "NIH" redirects here For other meanings of NIH see NIH (disambiguation. "[105] Paul Driessen, author of Eco-Imperialism: Green Power, Black Death,[106] argues that the epidemic of malaria in Africa not only takes the lives of 2 million people a year, but leaves those who survive malaria unable to contribute to the economy while sick and more vulnerable to subsequent diseases that might kill them. Paul Driessen (born January 21, 1948) is an American Author and lobbyist.

These arguments have been called "outrageous" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios, and May Berenbaum, a professor of entomology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, says that "to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible. "[107] In May 2008 article in Prospect, John Quiggin and Tim Lambert write that "the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted. Not to be confused with The American Prospect magazine Prospect is a monthly British general interest Magazine John Quiggin (born 29 March 1956 in Adelaide) is an Australian economist and professor at the University of Queensland. "[108]

It has been suggested that DDT treatments were used long enough to eliminate insect-borne diseases in the West, but now that it is only needed in poorer nations in Africa, Asia and elsewhere, it has been banned or otherwise restricted. Some environmental groups have been strongly criticized for trying to ban all use of DDT. According to Amir Attaran, many environmentalist groups fought against the public health exception of DDT in the 2001 Stockholm Convention, against the objections of third world governments and many malaria researchers. Amir Attaran is a Canadian lawyer immunologist and law professor Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent organic pollutants (POPs "Greenpeace, World Wildlife Fund, Physicians for Social Responsibility and over 300 other environmental organizations advocated for a total DDT ban, starting as early as 2007 in some cases. "[109] In an opinion piece in Nature Medicine he strongly objected to what would have been a de facto ban and stated: "Environmentalists in rich, developed countries gain nothing from DDT, and thus small risks felt at home loom larger than health benefits for the poor tropics. More than 200 environmental groups, including Greenpeace, Physicians for Social Responsibility and the World Wildlife Fund, actively condemn DDT for being "a current source of significant injury to. . . humans. "[110]

Criticisms of a ban on DDT often refer specifically to the 1972 US ban (with the implication that this constituted a worldwide ban), while ignoring that DDT has not been banned for public health use in most areas of the world where malaria is endemic. [111] Reference is also often made to Rachel Carson's Silent Spring even though she never pushed for a ban on DDT. Rachel Louise Carson (May 27 1907 – April 14 1964 was an American marine biologist and Nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global In fact, she devoted a page of the book to consideration of the relationship between DDT and malarial mosquitoes, with cognizance of the development of resistance in the mosquito, concluding:

It is more sensible in some cases to take a small amount of damage in preference to having none for a time but paying for it in the long run by losing the very means of fighting [is the advice given in Holland by Dr Briejer in his capacity as director of the Plant Protection Service]. Practical advice should be "Spray as little as you possibly can" rather than "Spray to the limit of your capacity. "

However, the fact that DDT is not formally banned in developing nations does not necessarily mean that those nations have the option to use it. Developing nations are typically heavily dependent on aid from agencies that made the aid contingent upon non-usage of DDT. The British Medical Journal of March 11, 2000, reports that the use of DDT in Mozambique "was stopped several decades ago, because 80% of the country's health budget came from donor funds, and donors refused to allow the use of DDT. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa "[112] Many African nations have been dissuaded from to using DDT in part because the European Union has said that their agricultural exports may not be accepted if spraying was "widespread. "[113]

According to the USAID website, "USAID has never had a “policy” as such either “for” or “against” DDT for IRS. The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the United States federal government organization responsible for most non- military The real change in the past two years has been a new interest and emphasis on the use of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) in general – with DDT or any other insecticide – as an effective malaria prevention strategy in tropical Africa. "[114] But the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria maintains that USAID and some other international donor organizations have refused to fund public health DDT programs. Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM is an NGO based in Washington DC and South Africa which states it "seeks to educate people about the scourge of [115] Similarly, Roger Bate of AFM asserts that many countries have been coming under pressure from international health and environment agencies to give up DDT or face losing aid grants, and that Belize and Bolivia have gone on record to say that they gave in to pressure on this issue from the US Agency for International Development. Roger Bate is an economist who has held a variety of positions in free market and conservative think tanks and Lobby groups. [116] USAID's Kent R. Hill states that the agency has been misrepresented:

USAID strongly supports spraying as a preventative measure for malaria and will support the use of DDT when it is scientifically sound and warranted. [117]

However, USAID "favored" DDT alternatives in its funding:

Contrary to popular belief, USAID does not "ban" the use of DDT in its malaria control programs. From a purely technical point of view in terms of effective methods of addressing malaria, USAID and others have not seen DDT as a high priority component of malaria programs for practical reasons. In many cases, indoor residual spraying of DDT, or any other insecticide, is not cost-effective and is very difficult to maintain. In most countries in Africa where USAID provides support to malaria control programs, it has been judged more cost-effective and appropriate to put US government funds into preventing malaria through insecticide-treated nets, which are every bit as effective in preventing malaria and more feasible in countries that do not have existing, strong indoor spraying programs. [118]

Alternatives to DDT

DDT versus other insecticides

Those who advocate for increased use of DDT claim that the alternatives to DDT are generally more expensive, more toxic to humans and not always as effective at controlling malaria and insect-borne diseases, and that the petrochemical companies which patent those alternatives push(ed) for DDT's ban simply for their own profits; DDT had entered the public domain, their patented insecticides have not. Actual data on the cost-effectiveness of DDT versus other insecticides and/or means of fighting malaria is, in fact, lacking. One complicating factor is that the relative costs of various measures vary, depending on geographical location and ease of access, the habits of the particular mosquitoes prevalent in each area, the degrees of resistance to various pesticides exhibited by the mosquitoes, and the habits and compliance of the population, among other factors.

Organophosphate or carbamate insecticides, e. An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for Esters of Phosphoric acid. Carbamates, or Urethanes are a group of Organic compounds sharing a common Functional group with the general structure -NH(COO- g. malathion or bendiocarb, are considerably more expensive than DDT, and malathion requires more frequent respraying. Malathion is an Organophosphate Parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to Cholinesterase. Bendiocarb is an acutely toxic Carbamate Insecticide used in Public health and Agriculture and is effective against a wide range of nuisance Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin and lambdacyhalothrin are also more expensive than DDT, but due to their much greater coverage per unit weight, the net cost per house is about the same. A pyrethroid is a synthetic Chemical compound similar to the natural chemical Pyrethrins produced by the flowers of Pyrethrums ( Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Deltamethrin is a Pyrethroid Ester Insecticide. Usage Deltamethrin products are among some of the most popular and widely used [88]

There are some insecticide alternatives to DDT, including methoxychlor and pyrethroids. Methoxychlor is a synthetic Organochlorine used as an Insecticide. A pyrethroid is a synthetic Chemical compound similar to the natural chemical Pyrethrins produced by the flowers of Pyrethrums ( Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium The environmental and health effects of alternatives are also under scrutiny. Under the Stockholm Convention, these are issue to be addressed when investigating and promoting alternative chemicals. Stockholm Convention is an international legally binding agreement on persistent organic pollutants (POPs A recent study has found that DDT as well as pyrethroid residues, such as permethrin and deltamethrin, were present in breast milk from a malaria controlled area in South Africa. A pyrethroid is a synthetic Chemical compound similar to the natural chemical Pyrethrins produced by the flowers of Pyrethrums ( Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Permethrin is a common synthetic chemical widely used as an Insecticide and Acaricide and as an Insect repellent. Deltamethrin is a Pyrethroid Ester Insecticide. Usage Deltamethrin products are among some of the most popular and widely used The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The DDT was derived from malaria control, but the pattern of pyrethoid pollution indicated exposure via agricultural use, where mothers frequently work in cotton fields, as well as from domestic use of insecticide dusts in vegetable gardens. [119]

DDT versus non-chemical vector control

Before DDT, malaria was successfully eradicated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larva stages, for example by filling or applying oil to places with standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. [120]

The relative effectiveness of IRS (with DDT or alternative insecticides) versus other malaria control techniques (e. g. bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies greatly and is highly dependent on local conditions. [20]

A study by the World Health Organization released in January of 2008 found that mass distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets and artemisinin based drugs cut malaria deaths in half in Rwanda and Ethiopia, countries with very high malaria burdens. IRS with DDT was determined to not have played an important role in the reduction of mortality. [121]

Vietnam is an example of a country that has seen a continued decline in malaria cases after switching in 1991 from a poorly funded DDT-based campaign to a program based on prompt treatment, bednets, and the use of pyrethroid group insecticides. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Deaths from malaria dropped by 97%. [122]

In Mexico, the use of a range of effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies against malaria has been so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production voluntarily, due to lack of demand. [123] Furthermore, while the increased numbers of malaria victims since DDT usage fell out of favor would, at first glance, suggest a 1:1 correlation, many other factors are known to have contributed to the rise in cases.

A review of fourteen studies on the subject in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine, and changing the first line drug for treatment, found decision making limited by the gross lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the very small number of cost-effectiveness analyses available, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures, and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; furthermore, the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programmes. [124]

However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying ($1. 87 US) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambdacyhalothrin-treated nets ($1. 54 US),[125] at very least casting some doubt on the unexamined assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure to use in all cases. The director of Mexico's malaria control program finds similar results, declaring that it is 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT. [123] However, another study in South Africa found generally lower costs for DDT spraying than for impregnated nets. [126]

A more comprehensive approach to measuring cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars of the project, as well as the number of people saved, but would also take into account the negative aspects of insecticide use on human health and ecological damage. One preliminary study regarding the effect of DDT found that it is likely the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in malarial epidemic situations. It is similar to the earlier mentioned study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier. [127]

A study in the Solomon Islands found that "although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying. "[128]

A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea, and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states "Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing. "[129]

DDT resistant mosquitoes have generally proved susceptible to pyrethroids. Thus far, pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles has not been a major problem. [88]

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External links

US Government

Toxicity

Environmental impact

Politics and DDT

Malaria and DDT

Chemical

The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM is an NGO based in Washington DC and South Africa which states it "seeks to educate people about the scourge of
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