Cyanobacteria
Anabaena sphaerica
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria Phylum: Cyanobacteria
Orders
The taxonomy is currently under revision. For Anabaena AJuss, a plant genus of the Euphorbiaceae, see its synonym Romanoa. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have [1]

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. A phylum ( Plural: phyla) is a Taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. The name "cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: κυανός (kyanós) = blue). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly They are a significant component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean, but are also found on land. The nitrogen cycle is the Biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of Nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature An autotroph (from the Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that produces complex Organic compounds from simple

Stromatolites of fossilized oxygen-producing cyanobacteria have been found from 2. Stromatolites (from Greek στρώμα strōma, mattress bed stratum and λιθος lithos, rock are layered accretionary Structures formed in FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. 8 billion years ago. ^[2] The ability of cyanobacteria to perform oxygenic photosynthesis is thought to have converted the early reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing one, which dramatically changed the life forms on Earth and provoked an explosion of biodiversity. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The Oxygen Catastrophe was a massive environmental change believed to have happened during the Siderian period at the beginning of the Paleoproterozoic Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Chloroplasts in plants and eukaryotic algae have evolved from cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts are Organelles found in Plant cells and eukaryotic Algae that conduct Photosynthesis. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms

Contents 1 Forms 2 Photosynthesis 3 Relationship to chloroplasts 4 Cyanobacteria and Earth history 5 Cyanobacterial evolution from comparative genomics 6 Classification 7 Biotechnology and applications 8 Health risks 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

Forms

Cyanobacteria are found in almost every conceivable habitat, from oceans to fresh water to bare rock to soil. Most are found in fresh water, while others are marine, occur in damp soil, or even temporarily moistened rocks in deserts. A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. A few are endosymbionts in lichens, plants, various protists, or sponges and provide energy for the host. An endosymbiont is any Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism i Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals In Biology, a host is an organism that harbors a Virus or Parasite, or a mutual or Commensal Symbiont, typically providing nourishment Some live in the fur of sloths, providing a form of camouflage while they are safe. The living sloths comprise six Species of medium-sized Mammals that live in Central and South America belonging to the families Camouflage is a method of cryptic or concealing coloration that allows an otherwise visible Organism

Cyanobacteria include unicellular and colonial species. In Biology, a colony (from Latin colonia) refers to several individual Organisms of the same Species living closely together usually Colonies may form filaments, sheets or even hollow balls. Filamentation is the anomalous growth of certain Bacteria, such as E Some filamentous colonies show the ability to differentiate into several different cell types: vegetative cells, the normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under favorable growing conditions; akinetes, the climate-resistant spores that may form when environmental conditions become harsh; and thick-walled heterocysts, which contain the enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous Cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc punctiforme, Cylindrospermum Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into Heterocysts may also form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) wherever nitrogen is necessary. Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas, which cannot be used by plants, into ammonia (NH₃), nitrites (NO₂⁻) or nitrates (NO₃⁻), which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor The nitrite Ion is NO2− The anion is bent being Isoelectronic with O3. In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms The rice paddies of Asia, which produce about 75% of the world's rice^[3], could not do so were it not for healthy populations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in the rice paddy fertilizer too. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many

Many cyanobacteria also form motile filaments, called hormogonia, that travel away from the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. Hormogonia are motile filaments of cells formed by some Cyanobacteria in the family Nostoceae. The cells in a hormogonium are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be tapered. In order to break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.

Each individual cell of a cyanobacterium typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural They differ from other gram-negative bacteria in that the quorum sensing molecules autoinducer-2^[4] and acyl-homoserine lactones^[5] are absent. Gram-negative bacteria are those Bacteria that do not retain Crystal violet dye in the Gram staining protocol Quorum sensing is a type of decision-making process used by decentralized groups to coordinate behavior They lack flagella, but hormogonia and some unicellular species may move about by gliding along surfaces. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it Bacterial gliding is a process whereby a Bacterium can move under its own power In water columns some cyanobacteria float by forming gas vesicles, like in archaea.

Photosynthesis

Cyanobacteria have an elaborate and highly organized system of internal membranes which function in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Photosynthesis in cyanobacteria generally uses water as an electron donor and produces oxygen as a by-product, though some may also use hydrogen sulfide as occurs among other photosynthetic bacteria. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the Chemical compound with the formula H 2 S. Carbon dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates via the Calvin cycle. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most The Calvin cycle (or Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle or carbon fixation is a series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplasts In most forms the photosynthetic machinery is embedded into folds of the cell membrane, called thylakoids. A Thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. The large amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere are considered to have been first created by the activities of ancient cyanobacteria. Due to their ability to fix nitrogen in aerobic conditions they are often found as symbionts with a number of other groups of organisms such as fungi (lichens), corals, pteridophytes (Azolla), angiosperms (Gunnera) etc. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many The pteridophytes are Vascular plants (plants with Xylem and Phloem) that neither Flower nor produce Seeds hence they are called vascular The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Gunnera is a genus of Herbaceous Flowering plants some of them gigantic

Cyanobacteria are the only group of organisms that are able to reduce nitrogen and carbon in aerobic conditions, a fact that may be responsible for their evolutionary and ecological success. The water-oxidizing photosynthesis is accomplished by coupling the activity of photosystem (PS) II and I (Z-scheme). Photosystems (ancient Greek: phos = light and systema = assembly are Protein complexes involved in Photosynthesis. The initial stage of the photosynthetic system is the light-dependent reaction, which converts solar energy into Potential energy. In anaerobic conditions, they are also able to use only PS I — cyclic photophosphorylation — with electron donors other than water (hydrogen sulfide, thiosulphate, or even molecular hydrogen) just like purple photosynthetic bacteria. Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the Chemical compound with the formula H 2 S. Purple bacteria or purple photosynthetic bacteria are Proteobacteria that are Phototrophic i Furthermore, they share an archaeal property, the ability to reduce elemental sulfur by anaerobic respiration in the dark. Their photosynthetic electron transport shares the same compartment as the components of respiratory electron transport. Actually, their plasma membrane contains only components of the respiratory chain, while the thylakoid membrane hosts both respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport. A Thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria.

Attached to thylakoid membrane, phycobilisomes act as light harvesting antennae for the photosystems . Phycobilisomes are light harvesting antennae of Photosystem II in Cyanobacteria, Red algae and Glaucophytes. The phycobilisome components (phycobiliproteins) are responsible for the blue-green pigmentation of most cyanobacteria. Phycobiliproteins are water-soluble Proteins present in Cyanobacteria and certain algae ( Rhodophytes cryptomonads, Glaucocystophytes The variations to this theme is mainly due to carotenoids and phycoerythrins which give the cells the red-brownish coloration. Carotenoids are organic Pigments that are naturally occurring in Chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic Organisms Phycoerythrin is a Red Protein from the light-harvesting Phycobiliprotein family present in Cyanobacteria, Red algae and cryptomonads In some cyanobacteria, the color of light influences the composition of phycobilisomes. In green light, the cells accumulate more phycoerythrin, whereas in red light they produce more phycocyanin. Thus the bacteria appear green in red light and red in green light. This process is known as complementary chromatic adaptation and is a way for the cells to maximize the use of available light for photosynthesis.

A few genera, however, lack phycobilisomes and have chlorophyll b instead (Prochloron, Prochlorococcus, Prochlorothrix). Prochlorococcus is a Genus of very small (06  µm) marine Cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation ( Chlorophyll These were originally grouped together as the prochlorophytes or chloroxybacteria, but appear to have developed in several different lines of cyanobacteria. For this reason they are now considered as part of cyanobacterial group.

Relationship to chloroplasts

Chloroplasts found in eukaryotes (algae and plants) likely evolved from an endosymbiotic relation with cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts are Organelles found in Plant cells and eukaryotic Algae that conduct Photosynthesis. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex This endosymbiotic theory is supported by various structural and genetic similarities. The endosymbiotic theory concerns the origins of mitochondria and Plastids (e Primary chloroplasts are found among the green plants, where they contain chlorophyll b, and among the red algae and glaucophytes, where they contain phycobilins. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The red algae (Rhodophyta ˌroʊdəˈfaɪtə roʊˈdɒfɨtə from Greek: ῥόδον (rhodon = rose + φυτόν (phyton = plant thus red plant are The glaucophytes, also known as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a small group of freshwater microscopic Algae. It now appears that these chloroplasts probably had a single origin, in an ancestor of the clade called Primoplantae. A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor The Archaeplastida or Primoplantae are a major line of Eukaryotes comprising the land plants green and Red algae and a small Other algae likely took their chloroplasts from these forms by secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.

It was once thought that the mitochondria in eukaryotes also developed from an endosymbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria; however, it is now suspected that this evolutionary event occurred when aerobic bacteria were engulfed by anaerobic host cells. In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria are believed to have originated not from cyanobacteria but from an ancestor of Rickettsia. Rickettsia is a Genus of motile, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming, highly Pleomorphic bacteria that can present

Cyanobacteria and Earth history

The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in our planet's history, at least 2450-2320 million years ago (Ma), and possibly much earlier. Geobiological interpretation of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks remains a challenge; available evidence indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved continues to engender debate and research. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already diverse biota of blue-greens. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Cyanobacteria remained principal primary producers throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500-543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. The Proterozoic (ˌproʊtərəˈzoʊɪk is a geological eon representing a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into Green algae joined blue-greens as major primary producers on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but only with the Mesozoic (251-65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did primary production in marine shelf waters take modern form. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms The Proterozoic (ˌproʊtərəˈzoʊɪk is a geological eon representing a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. The Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae. A gyre is any manner of swirling Vortex. It is often used to describe large-scale Wind or Ocean currents. ^[7]

Cyanobacterial evolution from comparative genomics

Recent high-throughput sequencing has provided DNA sequences at an unprecedented rate, posing considerable analytical challenges, but also offering insight into the genetic mechanisms of adaptation. For the sense of "sequencing" used in Electronic music, see the Music sequencer article Here we present a comparative genomics-based approach towards understanding the evolution of these mechanisms in cyanobacteria. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Historically, systematic methods of defining morphological traits in cyanobacteria have posed a major barrier in reconstructing their true evolutionary history. The advent of protein, then DNA, sequencing - most notably the use of 16S rRNA as a molecular marker - helped circumvent this barrier and now forms the basis of our understanding of the history of life on Earth. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribosomal RNA ( rRNA) is the central component of the Ribosome, the protein manufacturing machinery of all living cells. However, these tools have proved insufficient for resolving relationships between closely related cyanobacterial species. The 24 cyanobacteria whose genomes have been compared occupy a wide variety of environmental niches and play major roles in global carbon and nitrogen cycles. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 By integrating phylogenetic data inferred for hundreds to nearly 1000 protein coding genes common to all or most cyanobacteria, we are able to reconstruct an evolutionary history of the entire phylum, establishing a framework for resolving how their metabolic and phenotypic diversity came about. A phylum ( Plural: phyla) is a Taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. ^[7]

Classification

The cyanobacteria were traditionally classified by morphology into five sections, referred to by the numerals I-V. The first three - Chroococcales, Pleurocapsales, and Oscillatoriales - are not supported by phylogenetic studies. However, the latter two - Nostocales and Stigonematales - are monophyletic, and make up the heterocystous cyanobacteria. Stigonematales is the order of Cyanobacteria that includes filamentous strains that produce hormogonia and exhibit True branching. The members of Chroococales are unicellular and usually aggregated in colonies. The classic taxonomic criterion has been the cell morphology and the plane of cell division. In Pleurocapsales, the cells have the ability to form internal spores (baeocytes). The rest of the sections include filamentous species. In Oscillatorialles, the cells are uniseriately arranged and do not form specialized cells (akinets and heterocysts). In Nostocalles and Stigonematalles the cells have the ability to develop heterocysts in certain conditions. Stigonematales, unlike Nostocalles include species with truly branched trichome. Most taxa included in the phylum or division Cyanobacteria have not yet been validly published under the Bacteriological Code. The International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria ( ICNB) governs the scientific names for Bacteria. Except:

• The classes Chroobacteria, Hormogoneae and Gloeobacteria
• The orders Chroococcales, Gloeobacterales, Nostocales, Oscillatoriales, Pleurocapsales and Stigonematales
• The families Prochloraceae and Prochlorotrichaceae
• The genera Halospirulina, Planktothricoides, Prochlorococcus, Prochloron, Prochlorothrix. Gloeobacter is a genus of Cyanobacteria. It is a Sister group to all other cyanobacteria Gloeobacter is a genus of Cyanobacteria. It is a Sister group to all other cyanobacteria Stigonematales is the order of Cyanobacteria that includes filamentous strains that produce hormogonia and exhibit True branching. Prochlorococcus is a Genus of very small (06  µm) marine Cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation ( Chlorophyll

Biotechnology and applications

Certain cyanobacteria produce cyanotoxins like anatoxin-a, anatoxin-as, aplysiatoxin, cylindrospermopsin, domoic acid, microcystin LR, nodularin R (from Nodularia), or saxitoxin. A cyanotoxin is a Toxin produced by certain Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae Anatoxin-a is a secondary bicyclic Amine Alkaloid and Cyanotoxin with acute Neurotoxicity. A cyanotoxin is a Toxin produced by certain Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae A cyanotoxin is a Toxin produced by certain Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae Cylindrospermopsin (also CYN, or CYL) is a Cyanotoxin produced by a variety of Freshwater Cyanobacteria. Domoic acid, the neurotoxin which causes Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP is an Amino acid associated with certain Harmful algal blooms A cyanotoxin is a Toxin produced by certain Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae A cyanotoxin is a Toxin produced by certain Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae Nodularia is a genus of Filamentous Cyanobacteria, or Blue-green algae. Saxitoxin ( STX) is a neurotoxin naturally produced by certain species of marine Dinoflagellates ( Alexandrium sp Sometimes a mass-reproduction of cyanobacteria results in algal blooms. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced An algal bloom is a rapid increase in the population of Algae in an aquatic system

The unicellular cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 was the third prokaryote and first photosynthetic organism whose genome was completely sequenced. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby The term DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the Nucleotide bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine ^[8] It continues to be an important model organism. ^[9] The smallest genomes have been found in Prochlorococcus spp. Prochlorococcus is a Genus of very small (06  µm) marine Cyanobacteria with an unusual pigmentation ( Chlorophyll (1. 7 Mb)^[10][11] and the largest in Nostoc punctiforme (9 Mb)^[12]. Nostoc is a genus of fresh water Cyanobacteria that forms spherical colonies composed of Filaments of moniliform cells in a gelatinous sheath Those of Calothrix spp. are estimated at 12-15 Mb,^[13] as large as yeast. Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described

At least one secondary metabolite, cyanovirin, has shown to possess anti-HIV activity. Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

See hypolith for an example of cyanobacteria living in extreme conditions. In Arctic and Antarctic Ecology, a hypolith is a Photosynthetic Organism that lives underneath rocks in climatically

Some cyanobacteria are sold as food, notably Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina). Spirulina is the common name for human and animal food supplements produced primarily from two species of Cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae Arthrospira It has been suggested that they could be a much more substantial part of human food supplies, as a kind of superfood. Superfood is a term sometimes used to describe food with high phytonutrient content that some may believe confers health benefits as a result

Along with algae, some hydrogen producing cyanobacteria are being considered as an alternative energy source, notably at Oregon State University, in research supported by the U. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Alternative energy is typically defined as coming from sources that do not deplete natural resources or harm. Oregon State University ( OSU) is a Coeducational public Research[[ university]] located in Corvallis, Oregon, United S. Department of Energy, Princeton University, Colorado School of Mines, Ohio University as well as at Uppsala University, Sweden. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. The Colorado School of Mines is a public research university devoted to Engineering and Applied science located in the town of Golden Colorado. Ohio University is a public university located in Athens Ohio that is situated on a 1800 acre (7 Uppsala University ( Swedish Uppsala universitet) is a world-class research University in Uppsala, Sweden.

Health risks

Some species of cyanobacteria produce neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and endotoxins, making them dangerous to animals and humans. A neurotoxin is a Toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells ( Neurons, usually by interacting with Membrane proteins such as Ion channels Drug metabolism in liver The human body identifies almost all drugs as foreign substances (i Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells Examples of toxic agents are a Chemical substance, an Immune cell or some types of Venom Endotoxins (not to be confused with Enterotoxin) are potentially toxic, natural compounds found inside Pathogens such as Bacteria. Several cases of human poisoning have been documented but a lack of knowledge prevents an accurate assessment of the risks. ^[14][15]

See also

• Oxygen Catastrophe
• Archean
• Proterozoic

References

• Gillian Cribbs (1997) Nature's Superfood, the Blue-Green Algae Revolution. Newleaf. ISBN 0-7522-0569-2
• Marshall Savage, (1992, 1994) The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps. Marshall T Savage is an advocate of space travel who wrote The Millennial Project Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps and founded the Living Universe Foundation Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-77163-5
• Dyer, Betsey D. A Field Guide to Bacteria. Ithaca: Comstock Publishing Associates, 2003.
• Fogg, G. E. , Stewart, W. D. P. , Fay, P. and Walsby, A. E. 1973. The Blue-green Algae. Academic Press, London and New York. ISBN 0-12-261650-2
• "Architects of the earth's atmosphere." Introduction to the Cyanobacteria. University of California, Berkeley. The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley 03 Feb. 2006.
• Whitton, B. A. Phylum Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria). in The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 0 521 77051 3

External links

• Overview of cyanobacteria
• Webserver for Cyanobacteria Research
• Cyanobacteria
• Hardy Earth bacteria can grow in lunar soil - resilient cyanobacteria could help future lunar colonists to extract lunar resources, New Scientist, 14 March 2008

Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic