The culture of the Indian Ocean islands reflects the ethnic diversity, history, politics, music & dance, food & drink, arts, sports and international influences in that region. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The area includes Zanzibar (Unguja and Pemba Island), Madagascar, Mauritius, the Seychelles, Comoros, Réunion, Mayotte, Rodrigues, Agalega, Cargados Carajos and, historically, Chagos Archipelago and Diego Garcia. Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the This article is about the island Pemba is also a city in Mozambique and a small town in Zambia. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of The Agalega Islands are two islands in the Indian Ocean, lying 1100 km (700 miles north of Mauritius at. Cargados Carajos Shoals (also known as the Saint Brandon Rocks) are a group of about 16 small islands and islets on an extended Reef in the Indian Ocean The Chagos Archipelago (formerly Oil Islands) is a group of seven Atolls comprising more than 60 individual tropical Islands roughly in the centre of Diego Garcia is the largest Atoll, in terms of land area in Chagos Archipelago, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory.

Contents 1 Early history 1.1 Zanzibar 1.2 Madagascar 1.3 Comoros 1.4 Mayotte 1.5 Mauritius 1.6 Réunion 1.7 Seychelles 2 Calls for independence 2.1 Madagascar 2.2 Comoros 2.3 Mauritius 2.4 Seychelles 3 Peoples 3.1 Malays 3.2 Sakalava 3.3 Africans & Malagasy (Creoles) 3.4 Indians 3.5 Europeans 3.6 Chinese 3.7 Others

Early history

Perhaps the earliest explorers of the region were Arab. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Indeed, Arabs knew of the Mascarenes, naming Mauritius "Dina Machrek" (Isle of the East), Rodrigues Dina Harobi (Abandoned Isle) and Réunion Dina Moghraib (Western Isle). The Mascarene Islands (or Mascarenhas Archipelago) is a group of Islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar comprising Mauritius Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of This is testified by the planisphere of Cantino, made at Sagres. The Cantino planisphere (or Cantino World Map is the earliest surviving map showing Portuguese Discoveries in the east and west Sagres may refer to Sagres Portugal, a town Sagres Point, the nearby promontory Sagres (ship, They also knew of Comoros or Madagascar.

Zanzibar

Zanzibar was possibly one of the first islands in the Indian Ocean to be inhabited; the people were mostly of African origin. Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the

Madagascar

Further information: History of Madagascar, Malagasy cuisine, Malagasy music, and Malagasy mythology

Archeologists place the first arrival of humans on the island to the years between 200 and 500 AD, when seafarers from Sulawesi, arrived in their outrigger canoes. The recorded history of Madagascar began in the 7th century when Arabs established Trading posts along the northwest coast of the island Cuisine of Madagascar traditionally consists of a base of rice ( vary) with some form of accompaniment ( laoka) although in the southwest Madagascar is an island off the east coast of Mozambique in the Indian Ocean. Malagasy Mythology is rooted in Oral history and has been transmitted by Storytelling ( angano "story" notably the Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Sulawesi (formerly known as Celebes, ˈsɛlɛbiz is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the The feat represented the western-most branch of the great Austronesian expansion. The Austronesian people or Austronesian-speaking people, are a population group present in Oceania and Southeast Asia who speak or had ancestors who spoke Medieval Arab navigators and geographers may have known about Madagascar. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Various names labelled the island off the southern coast of Ophir (Africa): Phebol, Cernea, Menuthias, Medruthis, Sherbezat, Camarcada, and the Island of the Moon. Ophir ( is a port or region mentioned in the Bible, famous for its wealth

Madagascar gets its current name from Marco Polo, the fourteenth-century Italian explorer, who described an African island of untold wealth called 'Madeigascar' in his memoirs. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging Polo heard about the island second-hand during his travels in Asia. Most scholars believe that he was writing about Mogadishu, the port located in present-day Somalia. Mogadishu ( Somali: Muqdisho, popularly Xamar, Hamar; مقديشو Maqadīshū Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Nevertheless, the name Madagascar was attached to the island by Italian cartographers during the Renaissance.

Bantu settlers probably crossed the Mozambique Channel to Madagascar at the same time as or shortly after the Indonesians arrived. Bantu may refer to Bantu expansion, a series of migrations of Bantu speakers Bantu languages Bantu people The Mozambique Channel is a portion of the Indian Ocean between the island of Madagascar and southeast Africa, namely Mozambique. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Although the majority of words in the Malagasy language have Malayan-Polynesian affinities, a smattering of Bantu words -- omby (ox), ondry (sheep), and others -- appears as well. This article is about the Malagasy language For the Malagasy ethnic group see Malagasy people. The concept of a Malay race ( Bangsa Melayu) was proposed by the German scientist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840 Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over From this evidence, some anthropologists believe that Indonesian and Bantu settlers intermixed early in the island’s history. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Bantu may refer to Bantu expansion, a series of migrations of Bantu speakers Bantu languages Bantu people

The Bantus brought with them the gourd-like jejolava and the multi-stringed valiha, the instruments of Malagasy music. Madagascar is an island off the east coast of Mozambique in the Indian Ocean. The Bantus also brought a cultural trait that is peculiar to East Africa -- an obsession with cattle. East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family Especially on the southern savannahs of Madagascar where African influences are strongest, wealth and social status are measured in cattle, and the zebu outnumber the inhabitants by two or three to one. A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. Zebus ( Bos primigenius indicus) sometimes known as 'humped Cattle ' or 'indicus' cattle are a type of cattle better-adapted to tropical environments

According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Arabs to settle Madagascar came as refugees from the civil wars that followed the death of Muhammad in 632. The Malagasy ( French: Malgache) ethnic group forms the vast majority of the population of Madagascar. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Events and trends 636 BC — Duke Wen of Jin ascends to power in the State of Jin during the Zhou Dynasty of China. Beginning in the tenth or eleventh century, Arabic and Zanzibari slave traders working their way down the east coast of Africa in their dhows and established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The most noteworthy of these were the Zafiraminia, traditional ancestors of the Antemoro, Antanosy and other east coast ethnicities. The last wave of Arab immigrants would be the Antalaotra who immigrated from eastern African colonies. They settled the north-west of the island (Majunga area) and were the first to actually bring Islam to the island. Mahajanga (French Majunga) is a City, a district and a province on the north-west coast of Madagascar. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Arab immigrants were few in number compared to the Indonesians and Bantus, but they left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins are Arabic in origin, as is the practice of circumcision, the communal grain pool, and different forms of salutation. The Arab magicians, known as the ombiasy, established themselves in the courts of many Malagasy tribal kingdoms. Arab immigrants imposed the patriarchal system of family and clan rule on Madagascar. Previous to the Arabs, the Malagasies practiced the Polynesian matriarchal system whereby rights of privilege and property are conferred equally on men and women. The Malagasy ( French: Malgache) ethnic group forms the vast majority of the population of Madagascar. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over

The Merina kingdom In the central highlands of Madagascar, a state of rice farmers, had lived in relative isolation from the rest of Madagascar for several centuries, but by 1824 the Merina conquered nearly all of Madagascar thanks to the leadership of two shrewd kings, Andrianampoinimerina (circa 1745–1810) and his son Radama I (1792–1828). Not to be confused with Mirena. The Merina is the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. Andrianampoinimerina ( Andriana -am-Poin- Imerina, "The-King-in-the-Heart-of-Imerina" born as Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka Radama I "the Great" (c 1793 - 1828) the first king of Madagascar, united the island under his rule

By marrying the princesses of different Merina clans and warring against the princes, Andrianampoinimerina united the Merina kingdom. Andrianampoinimerina ( Andriana -am-Poin- Imerina, "The-King-in-the-Heart-of-Imerina" born as Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka He established Antananarivo as the capital of Madagascar and built the royal palace, or rova, on a hilltop overlooking the city. Antananarivo (ˌtəˌnænəˈriːv or /ˌtəˌnɑːnəˈriːv/ is the Capital and largest city in Madagascar. The king ambitiously proclaimed: Ny ranomasina no valapariako (“the sea is the boundary of my rice field”). But what distinguished Andrianampoinimerina from other ambitious kings and tribal chiefs was his ability to administer. Andrianampoinimerina ( Andriana -am-Poin- Imerina, "The-King-in-the-Heart-of-Imerina" born as Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka The king codified the laws. He supervised the building of dykes and trenches to increase the amount of arable land around Antananarivo. LeveeEmbankmentDitch A dike (or dyke) levee, levée, embankment, floodbank or stopbank is a natural or artificial A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground Trenches are generally defined by being deeper than they are wide (as opposed to a wider Gully or Ditch Antananarivo (ˌtəˌnænəˈriːv or /ˌtəˌnɑːnəˈriːv/ is the Capital and largest city in Madagascar. He introduced the metal spade and compelled rice farmers to use it. King was an exemplary military commander. Commander is a Military rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service By the time of his death in 1810, he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes and was preparing to push the boundaries of his kingdom to the shores of the island. The Betsileo are a highland clan of Madagascar, the third largest in terms of population numbering around one million

Comoros

The Comoros are thought to have been first settled by the same (proto-Islamic) Malayo-Polynesians as Madagascar. The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ Indeed, Malays have long since influenced the Comorian Culture. Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast The next evidense of settlement here are successions of African/Malagasy tribal groups who, escaping persecution, fled to these islands. Next came Arab traders from the Persian Gulf and also a minority known as Shirazis (Persians). The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the They converted many of the local tribes to Islam in the 15th century. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Comoros beccame an Arab-dominant Sultanate. Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings

Unlike sultans in many other Arab nations, these sultans had little real power. Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings At one time alone on the island of Ndzuwani or Nzwani (Anjouan), 40 fanis and other chiefs shared power of the island; Ngazidja (Grand Comore) was at many times divided into 11 sultanates. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. Grande Comore (officially called Ngazidja and also known as Ngasidja) is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa.

In 1505 Portuguese explored the Comoros, and due to their strategic position, various European powers fought over them until they were eventually won by France. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.

On 25 March 1841, France annexed the Mawuti or Maore sultanate (the name of the island was corrupted in French to "Mayotte") as Mayotte protectorate (ratified 13 June 1843). Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. For the game see 1841 (board game. Year 1841 ( MDCCCXLI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Year 1843 ( MDCCCXLIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common In 1852, Andruna was added to Mayotte protectorate and, in 1866, the large Sultanate of Ndzuwani (on Anjouan island) as well. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. It was the French who developed the Comoros and Mayotte.

On 24 June 1886, the islands of Ngazidja (Grande Comore) comprised eleven sultanates, but, in 1886, the Sultan tibe (paramount ruler and Sultan) of Bambao unified them, Ndzuwani (Anjouan), and Mwali Sultanate (Mohéli island) become French protectorates, French résidents are posted on the three islands; on 5 September 1887 they were collectively renamed the Protectorate of the Comoros. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Grande Comore (officially called Ngazidja and also known as Ngasidja) is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. Grande Comore (officially called Ngazidja and also known as Ngasidja) is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. Bambao is a town located on the island of Anjouan in the Comoros. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. The Mwali Sultanate was established in 1830 It was located on Mohéli island Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a state official of certain representative -diplomatic and/or colonial- types required to take up permanent residency abroad officially Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Year 1887 ( MDCCCLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

On 9 April 1908, France declared the Comoros a dependent territory of its Madagascar colony. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans) Year 1908 ( MCMVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year On 25 July 1912, it was annexed by France and joined with Mayotte as Mayotte and dependencies, after the ratification on 23 February 1914 subordinated to the governor general of Madagascar (Comoros dependent colony). Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year

Mayotte

Mayotte has a very similar history as the Comoros, and were settled by the same groups of people. Mahorais, however, began to drift away from ethnic Comorians since Merina people invaded the island from Madagascar and began mixing with local tribes. Not to be confused with Mirena. The Merina is the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern When the Merina tribe of the Madagascar Highlands conquered the Sakalava kingdoms, some members of this tribe fled to Mayotte where they intermarried with the remaining original Mahorais as well as visiting Swahili and Arab traders, thus forming the Mahorais people of today. Swahili (called Kiswahili in the language itself is the First language of the Swahili people (Waswahili who inhabit several large stretches The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Mahorai language bears a large similarity to the Comorian language spoken in Grande Comore, Anjouan and Moheli. Comorian ( Shikomor) is the most widely used language on the Comoros (independent islands in the Indian Ocean, off Mozambique and Madagascar Grande Comore (officially called Ngazidja and also known as Ngasidja) is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros.

Circa 1500 the Maore or Mawuti (corrupted to Mayotte in French) sultanate was established on the island. Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings

In 1503 it was noted by Portuguese explorers, but not colonized. The Portuguese people (os Portugueses literally the Portuguese) are the Ethnic group or Nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west

In 1832 it was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina in Madagascar; in 1833 conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali (Mohéli island in French); on 19 November 1835 again conquered by Ndzuwani sultanate (Anjouan sultanate in French; a governor was installed with the unusual islamic style of Qadi, sort of a 'Resident Magistrate' in British terms), but in 1836 regained its independence under a last local Sultan. Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Events 1095 - The Council of Clermont, called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land Year 1835 ( MDCCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927

Mauritius

Mauritius, though known by Arabs (naming it Dina Machrek), Malays and Portuguese (naming it Ilha Do Cirnos) explorers, remained uninhabited until the Dutch arrived. Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Dutch people ( Dutch:) are the dominant Ethnic group of the Netherlands. They named the island Maurice, after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange. Maurice of Nassau (Maurits van Nassau ( 14 November 1567 &ndash 23 April 1625) Prince of Orange (1618&ndash1625

It first appeared on maps with sister islands of Réunion and Rodrigues, the other two islands in the region known as the Mascarenes, after Don Pero Mascarenhas. Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of Rodrigues, ( Rodriguan Creole: Zil Rodrigues) named after the Portuguese explorer Diogo Rodrigues, is the smallest of the Mascarene Islands The Mascarene Islands (or Mascarenhas Archipelago) is a group of Islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar comprising Mauritius

In 1638 Cornelius Gooyer established the first permanent Dutch settlement in Mauritius with a garrison consisting of 25 persons. Cornelius Gooyer was a Dutchman who established a settlement in what is now Mauritius. Garrison (various spellings (from the French garnison, itself from the verb garnir, "to equip" is the collective term for a body of Troops He thus became the first governor of the island. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government In 1639, 30 more men came to reinforce the Dutch colony. The Dutch Empire was the territories controlled by The Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century Gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island, but he did nothing of the sort, so he was recalled. His successor was Adriann Van der Stel who began the development in earnest, developing the export of ebony bark. For the purpose, Van der Stel bought 105 Malagasy slaves to the island. Within the first week, about 60 slaves were able to run away into the forests and about only 20 of them were eventually recaptured. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues were then introduced to the slave trade. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history In 1644, the islanders were faced with many months of hardships, due to delayed shipment of supplies, bad harvests and cyclones. In Meteorology, a cyclone refers to an area of closed circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. During those months, the colonists could only rely on themselves by fishing and hunting. Nonetheless, Van der Stel secured the shipment of 95 more slaves from Madagascar, before being transferred to Ceylon. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island His replacement was Jacob Van der Meersh. Jacob van der Meersch was governor of Mauritius from 1644 to 1648. In 1645, the latter brought in 108 more Malagasy slaves. Van der Meersh left Mauritius in September 1648 and was replaced by Reinier Por. Renier Por was governor of Mauritius from 1648 to 1658. The first Dutch colony was abandoned and re-established in Grand Port in

In 1652, more hardships befell on the colonists, masters and slaves alike. The population was then of about 100 people. The continuing hardships affected the commercial potential island and a pullout was ordered in 1657. On 16 July 1658, almost all the inhabitants left the island, except for a ship’s boy and 2 slaves who had taken shelter in the forests. Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and Thus the first attempt at colonization by the Dutch ended badly. Colonisation (also known as Colonization) occurs whenever any one or more species populates a new area

In 1664, a second attempt was made, but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander, Van Niewland, without proper treatment and the latter eventually died. Commander is a Military rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service

From 1666 to 1669, Dirk Jansz Smient administered the new colony at Grand Port, with the cutting down and export of ebony trees as the main activity. Renier Por was governor of Mauritius in the new settlement at Grand Port from 1666 to 1669. Grand Port is a district encompassing much of the south-eastern part of the island of Mauritius. When Smient left, he was replaced by George Frederik Wreeden. George Frederik Wreeden was governor of Mauritius from 1669 to 1672 The latter died in 1672, drowned with 5 other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. His replacement would be Hubert Hugo. Huburt Hugo was governor of Mauritius from 1672 to 1677 He left the island and was replaced by Issac Johannes Lamotius. The later was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony. His vision was not shared by his superiors and eventually could not fully develop his vision.

Issac Johannes Lamotius became the new governor when Hugo left in 1677. Isaac Johannes Lamotius was Governor of Mauritius from 1677 to 1692 Lamotius governed until 1692, when he was deported to Batavia for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship. Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. Thus in 1692 a new governor, Roelof Deodati, was appointed. Roelof Deodati was governor of Mauritius in the late 17th Century and was replaced by Abraham Momber Van de Velde. Even if he tried to develop the island, Deodati faced many problems, like cyclones, pest infestations, cattle illnesses and droughts. In Meteorology, a cyclone refers to an area of closed circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply Discouraged, Deodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be Abraham Momber Van de Velde. Abraham Momber aka Abraham Momber van de Velde was the last commander ( opperhoofd) of the Dutch East India Company settlement on Mauritius The latter fared no better and eventually became the last Dutch governor of the island for that period. Thus the Dutch abandoned the island definitely in 1710. Slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists and revolts or the act of organizing one was severely repressed and punished. Some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others, eventually culminating in condemned slaves’ execution at sunset.

Legacy of the Dutch

• Providing the name for the country and for many regions over the whole island. Some examples include the ‘Pieter Both’ mountain, the ‘Vandermeersh’ region near Rose-Hill as well as many other names. Pieter Both (1568 Amersfoort - 6 March 1615, Mauritius) was the first Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.
• Introduction of sugar cane plants from Java
• Decimating the local dodo and giant tortoise population for food and by introducing competing species and pests, sometimes involuntarily. Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta.
• Clearing of large swaths of forests for ebony bark exploitation

French rule (1715-1810) Abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French colony when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne D'Arsel landed and took possession of this port of call on the route to India. The term " exploitation " may carry two distinct meanings The act of utilizing something for any purpose The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country He named the island "Isle de France", but it was only in 1721 that the French started their occupation. Île-de-France ( pronounced /il d̪ə fʁɑ̃s/ literally "Island of France" is one of the twenty-six administrative regions of France. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( However, it was only as from 1735, with the arrival of the most illustrious of French governor, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that the "Isle de France" started developing effectively. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais ( comte de La Bourdonnais) ( Saint-Malo, 11 February 1699 &ndash Paris, 10 November

Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais ( comte de La Bourdonnais) ( Saint-Malo, 11 February 1699 &ndash Paris, 10 November Under his governorship, numerous buildings were built, a number of which are still standing today - part of Government House, the Chateau de Mon Plaisir at Pamplemousses and the Line Barracks. Pamplemousses is a district of Mauritius in the north of the island and is one of the most densely populated parts of the island Barracks are living quarters for personnel on a Military post The island was under the administration of the French East India Company which maintained its presence until 1767. The French East India Company ( French: La Compagnie française des Indes orientales or Compagnie française pour le commerce des Indes orientales) was a

From that year until 1810, the island was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France. The government of France is a Semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the fifth Republic, in which the nation declares The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an

During the Napoleonic wars, the "Isle de France" had become a base from which French corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Corsairs were French Privateers from the north-western French port of St-Malo, located on the northern coast of Brittany. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured a year earlier, was successful. Grand Port is a district encompassing much of the south-eastern part of the island of Mauritius. The British landed in large numbers in the north of the island and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated. By the Treaty of Paris in 1814, the "Isle de France" which was renamed 'Mauritius' was ceded to Great Britain, together with Rodrigues and the Seychelles. Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants.

British rule (1810-1968) Despite the only French naval victory of Battle of the Grand Port on 19 August and 20 August 1810 by the fleet commanded by Pierre Bouvet, Mauritius was captured 3 December 1810 by the British under Commodore Josias Rowley. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine Year 1810 ( MDCCCX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 1810 ( MDCCCX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Their possession of the island was confirmed 4 years later by the Treaty of Paris (1814). French institutions, including the Napoleonic code of law, were maintained. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under The French language was at that moment still used more widely than English.

The British administration, which began with Robert Farquhar as governor, was followed by rapid social and economic changes. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government One of the most important events was the abolition of slavery in 1835. Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies The planters received a compensation of two million pounds sterling for the loss of their slaves which had been imported from Africa and Madagascar during the French occupation. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern

Mauritian Creoles trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields from Africa and Madagascar. Mauritian Creole people are the people of African and Malagasy origin who live in Mauritius For the languages see Creole language. For other meanings see Creole (disambiguation. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Indo-Mauritians are descended from Indian immigrants who arrived in the 19th century to the Coolie ghat, renamed Aapravasi Ghat in order to work as indentured laboreror coolies after slavery was abolished in 1833. Indo-Mauritians are people of Indian descent living on the island of Mauritius, where they represent a majority comprising 68% of the population according to the India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Immigration Depot in Mauritius ( Hindi: Aapravasi Ghat) is a dilapidated complex of buildings in Port Louis, which contains scarce remains As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Included in the Indo-Mauritian community are Muslims (about 17% of the population) from the Indian subcontinent. This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Franco-Mauritian elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking. Franco-Mauritians are people of French origin who reside in Mauritius. As the Indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended, political power shifted from the Franco-Mauritians and their Creole allies to the Indo-Mauritians. Political power ( Imperium in Latin is a type of power held by a group in a Society which allows administration of some or all of

Conflicts arose between the Indian community (mostly sugarcane labourers) and the Franco-Mauritians in the 1920s, leading to several deaths - mainly Indians. Following this the Mauritius Labour Party was founded in 1936 by Dr. The Mauritian Labour Party (Parti Travailliste is a Political party in Mauritius. Maurice Cure to safeguard the interest of the labourers. Dr. Cure was succeeded a year later by Emmanuel Anquetil who tried to gain the support of the port workers. Emmanuel Anquetil was a famous unionist and the second leader of the Mauritius Labour Party. After his death Guy Rozemond took over the leadership of the party.

Réunion

Arab sailors used to call this island Dina Morgabin ("Western Island"). The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit the island, finding it uninhabited in 1513, and naming it Santa Apollonia. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

The island was then occupied by the French and administered from Port Louis, Mauritius. Port Louis District is the Capital and one of the district of Mauritius. Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Although the French flag was hoisted by François Cauche in 1638, Santa Apollonia was officially claimed by Jacques Pronis of France in 1642, when he deported a dozen French mutineers to the island from Madagascar. Mutiny is a conspiracy among members of a group of similarly-situated individuals (typically members of the Military; or the Crew of any ship even Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The convicts were returned to France several years later, and in 1649, the King of France Louis XIII named the island Île Bourbon after his royal house. List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below For the cognac see Louis XIII de Rémy Martin. Louis XIII ( September 27, 1601 – May 14, 1643) Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of

"Réunion" was the name given to the island in 1793 by a decree of the Convention with the fall of the House of Bourbon in France, and the name commemorates the union of revolutionaries from Marseille with the National Guard in Paris, which took place on August 10, 1792. Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year In 1801, the island was renamed "Île Bonaparte", after Napoleon Bonaparte. The island was taken by the British navy led by Commodore Josias Rowley in 1810, who used the old name of "Bourbon". When it was restored to France by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the island retained the name of "Bourbon" until 1848, when the fall of the restored Bourbons during the revolutions during that year meant that the island became "Réunion" once again. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese, Malays, and Indians gave the island its ethnic mix. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on the East Indies trade route.

Réunion became an overseas département of France on March 19, 1946. In the Terminology of Political geography and Historiography a National department (département departamento is an administrative Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Between 15 March and 16 March 1952, Cilaos at the center of Réunion received 1,869. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Cilaos is a Town and commune of approximately 6000 residents situated on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. 9 mm (73. 6 in) of rainfall. This is the greatest 24-hour precipitation total ever recorded on Earth.

Seychelles

The Seychelles islands remained uninhabited for more than 150 years after the first recorded landing in 1609 by the crew of an English East India company vessel, the Ascension. Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole The Amirantes were sighted by Vasco da Gama in 1502 and islands north of Madagascar appeared on Portuguese charts as early as 1511, although Arabs may have visited them much earlier. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding In 1742, the French governor of Mauritius, Bertrand François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, sent an expedition to the islands. Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais ( comte de La Bourdonnais) ( Saint-Malo, 11 February 1699 &ndash Paris, 10 November A second expedition was sent in 1744. In 1756 formal possession was asserted by France and the first settlement was established in 1770. The new French colony barely survived its first decade and did not begin to flourish until 1794, when Jean-Baptiste Quéau de Quincy became commandant. France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world

The Seychelles islands were captured several times by visiting British warships during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, though no attempt was made to keep the Union Jack flying once the ships sailed. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Possession passed officially to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1814). From the date of its founding by the French until 1903, the Seychelles Colony was regarded as a dependency of Mauritius, which also passed from the French to British rule in 1814.

In 1888, a separate administrator and executive and administrative councils were established for the Seychelles archipelago. An archipelago (ɑrkəˈpɛləgoʊ is a chain or cluster of Islands The word archipelago literally means "chief Sea " from Italian Nine years later, the administrator acquired full powers of a British colonial governor, and on August 31, 1903, Seychelles became a separate British Crown Colony. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 1903 ( MCMIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting The British Overseas Territories are fourteen territories that are under the Sovereignty of the United Kingdom, but which do not form part of the United Kingdom

In 1958, the French bought back the Glorioso islands from the Seychelles. Glorieuses or Glorioso Islands ( French: Îles Glorieuses or officially also Archipel des Glorieuses) are a group of French islands

In March 1970, colonial and political representatives of Seychelles met in London for a constitutional convention, with the Seychelles Democratic Party (SDP) of James Mancham advocating closer integration with the UK, and the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP) of France-Albert René advocating independence. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Seychelles Democratic Party is a political party in Seychelles. Sir James Richard Marie Mancham KBE (born August 11 1939, Victoria) was the first President of Seychelles from 1976 to 1977 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Seychelles People's Progressive Front ( French: Front Progressiste du Peuple Seychellois) is a socialist Political party in Seychelles. France-Albert René (born November 16, 1935) was the long-time socialist President of Seychelles from 1977 to 2004 Elections in November 1970 brought a new constitution into effect, with Mancham as Chief Minister. A Chief Minister is the elected Head of government of a sub-national (e Further elections were held in April 1974, in which both major political parties campaigned for independence. Following this election, negotiations with the British resulted in an agreement under which the Seychelles became an independent republic within the Commonwealth on June 29, 1976. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Events 512 - A Solar eclipse is recorded by a monastic chronicler in Ireland. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The newly knighted Sir James Mancham became the country's first President, with René as Prime Minister. These negotiations also restored the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Desroches, which had been transferred from Seychelles in November 1965 to form part of the new British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) to Seychelles upon independence. Aldabra is a raised Coral Atoll in the Aldabra Group of islands in the Indian Ocean that form part of the Seychelles.

Calls for independence

Madagascar

In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, France suppressed the nationalist Malagasy Uprising after one year of bitter fighting, in which as many as 80 000 Malagasy died. The Malagasy Uprising (or Revolt of Madagascar was an attempted revolution against the French by nationalists on the island of Madagascar between 1947 The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana as President. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (or 'colons') still in positions of power. A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there often to colonize the area Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern In 1972 protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana was forced to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This regime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.

In 1975 Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka (who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (born 4 November 1936) was the President of Madagascar from 1975 until 1993 and from 1997 until 2002 Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Ratsiraka's seven year term was extended after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections. In the 80s Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Eventually opposition both in Madagascar and internationally forced him to reconsider his position and in 1992 a new democratic constitution was approved.

The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Zafy failed to re-unite the country and was impeached in 1996. The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and surprisingly ended in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka. He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and World Bank led to widespread privatisation. The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e

Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but this position was refuted by the incumbent. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and there were violent clashes. Ravalomanana claimed that there had been fraud at the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent was internationally recognised and he was forced into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued to be active in Madagascar.

Ravlomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2002 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. January 2003: ← - January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, end corruption and realise the country's potential. Ratsiraka was tried in his absence for embezzlement (he was charged with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and sentenced to ten years hard labour.

Comoros

Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups since gaining independence from France in 1975. Probably many of these coups were orchestrated by France which still maintained substantial interests in the area (especially on Mayotte), although it is hard to find definite proof. Bob Denard overthrew the government four times. "Colonel" Bob Denard ( April 7, 1929 &ndash October 13, 2007) born Gilbert Bourgeaud, was one of the most famous and

The second time was in 1978, when president Ali Soilih, who had a firm anti-French attitude, was killed and Ahmed Abdallah came to power. Ali Soilih ( January 7 1937 - May 29 1978) was a Comorian socialist revolutionary and political figure Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in South Africa (SA) and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in return to the permission to set up a secret listening station on the islands. The Belarusian Presidential Guard is a law-enforcement body that was designed to protect the President of Belarus and other high ranking officials and officers The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election South-African agents had to keep an ear on the important ANC bases in Lusaka and Dar es Salaam and to watch the war in Mozambique, in which South Africa played an active role. Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau of the country at an elevation Dar es Salaam (دار السلام "Abode of Peace" Dār as-Salām) formerly Mzizima, is the largest city in Tanzania. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa The Comoros were also used for evading arms sanctions.

When in 1981 François Mitterrand was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between South Africa and the Comoros. François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand ( 26 October 1916 8 January 1996 served as President of France from 1981 to 1995 elected as representative of the Socialist Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.

At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequentially forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989. Said Mohamed Djohar became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.

On September 28, 1995 Bob Denard and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercanaries) against President Djohar. Events 48 BC - Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 "Colonel" Bob Denard ( April 7, 1929 &ndash October 13, 2007) born Gilbert Bourgeaud, was one of the most famous and Operation Azalee was the name of a French military expedition to remove the provisional government of the Comoros that was led and put into power by famed mercenary France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the Comoros, President Jacques Chirac ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the islands two airports. For other uses of the phrase see Machine Gun (disambiguation. An airport is a location where Aircraft such as airplanes, Helicopters and blimps take off and land

On October 3, 1995, 11 p. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 m. , the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni are secured. By 3:00 p. m. the next day Bob Denard and his Mercenaries had surrendered. This operation, codename Azalée, was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister Caambi El-Yachourtu became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January 1996. In March 1996, following presidential elections, Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim, a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president. Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim ( 1936 - 6 November 1998) was President of the Comoros from 25 March 1996 until his death on

In 1997, the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from Comoros. Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the African Union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan started to fall apart internally, on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, and gave power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Mohamed Bacar soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Colonel Mohamed Bacar (born May 5, 1962 in Barakani, Anjouan, then a French colony was President of Anjouan, one of the Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Charif's government stayed in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections have been held on Comoros, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which are now in a confederation. Grande Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, as President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Colonel Azali Assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he is now in firm control of the country after winning a presidential election.

In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi was elected from the island of Anjouan to be the president of the Union of Comoros. Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi (أحمد عبدالله محمد سامبي born 5 June 1958 in Mutsamudu, Anjouan Island Comoros) Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous Island of the Union of Comoros. The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ He is a well-respected Sunni cleric who studied in the Sudan, Iran and Saudi Arabia. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi He is respectfully called "Ayatollah" by his supporters but is considered a moderate Islamist. He has been quoted as stating that Comoros is not ready to become an Islamic state, nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the Comoros. He is also a successful businessman and set to be the first president of the Comoros to ever peacefully gain power.

Mauritius

Elections in 1947 for the newly created Legislative Assembly marked Mauritius' first steps toward self-rule. The Assembly was elected among adult knowing to write. It was won by the Labour Party Headed by Guy Rozemont. It is the first time the elite Franco was ousted out of power. An independence campaign gained momentum after 1961, when the British agreed to permit additional self-government and eventual independence. A coalition composed of the Mauritian Labour Party (MLP), the Muslim Committee of Action (CAM) of Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed, and the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB)--a traditionalist Hindu party--won a majority in the 1967 Legislative Assembly election, despite opposition from Franco-Mauritian ( and Creole supporters of Gaetan Duval's and Jules Keoing's Mauritian Social Democratic Party (PMSD). The contest was interpreted locally as a referendum on independence. The election was won by a small margin. The constituency No. 15 was capital to the winning of the pro-independence coalition. The MLP led alliance was able to win this constituency only due to the support of the C. A. M. of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, MLP leader and chief minister in the colonial government, became the first prime minister after independence, on March 12, 1968. Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This event was preceded by a period of communal strife, brought under control with assistance from British troops.

From independence to 1994

The 1970s saw the emergence of the Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien (MMM/PSM) led by Paul Bérenger. The MMM was founded in 1970 and had three initial leaders, Paul Bérenger, Dev Virasawmy and Juneid Jeeroobarkhan. The MMM won its first election in a by election of constituency No. 5 by electing Dev Virasawmy. Until 1982, Sir Seewoosagur was Prime Minister, his Labour Party in coalition with Duval's PMSD. In 1982, the coalition of Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien came to power in a landslide electoral victory, with Anerood Jugnauth as Prime Minister and Harish Boodhoo as the deputy Prime Minister. The coalition split in 1983, with Anerood Jugnauth forming the Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien (MSM), which became the governing party, with Jugnauth as Prime Minister. Sir Seewoosagur subsequently became Governor-General, although the MSM planned to make the country a republic within the Commonwealth, with him as President. An attempt to make the country a republic in 1990, with Bérenger as President failed, owing to political opposition.

Following Sir Seewoosagur's death, his son, Navin Ramgoolam succeeded him as leader of the MLP. However, the MLP and PMSD were defeated at the 1991 election, which saw Sir Anerood Jugnauth re-elected. On March 12, 1992 Mauritius finally became a republic within the Commonwealth, with Cassam Uteem as president. Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar)

1995 - present day

Navin Ramgoolam formed a coalition with the MMM at the parliamentary elections in 1995, leaving the MSM in opposition. At the next elections in 2001, Sir Anerood Jugnauth’s MSM, in coalition with Paul Bérenger’s MMM was returned to power, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth appointed as prime minister. He subsequently retired as Prime Minister after 3 years and assumed the office of President. For the remaining time of the elected government the Prime Minister’s post was filled by Paul Bérenger. At the 2005 general elections, the MLP led Alliance Sociale coalition won the elections and Navin Ramgoolam became Prime Minister. Navinchandra Ramgoolam ( नवीन चन्‍द्र रामगुलाम) (born July 14 1947) is the current Prime Minister of the Sir Anerood Jugnauth remains at the presidency.

Seychelles

See also History of Seychelles

Seychelles gained independence in 1976 from Britain, forming a republic. The recorded history of Seychelles dates back to the 17th century A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its

Peoples

There is a distinct ethnic diversity within the region, each nation sharing many similar traditions as well as having their own unique traditions. French culture, as well as British in some islands, has influenced the history and culture of the region greatly.

Malays

Malay peoples first settled in Madagascar. Today they form the largest Malagasy ethnic group. Merinas, with a population of 3 million, are descended from Malays who emigrated there in the common era. In the late 18th century Merina rulers began to assert political domination over much of the island. In 1895-96 the French abolished the Merina monarchy by force.

The Malays have had the largest influence in Madagascar, with Malay Misic, food and drink and language evoling into the main parts of Malagasy Culture.

Malays also settled in the Comoros. These malays differentiated greatly from Madagascar in the three independent islands, as Merinas invaded Maore and began intermarrying with other races.

Sakalava

The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. Sakalavaare are more of a diverse group of ethnicities that once comprised an ancient empire, than an ethnic group in their own right.

During the Middle Ages, when the chiefs of the different settlements on the island began to extend their power through trade with Madagascar's Indian Ocean neighbors, the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centered in what is now the town of Morondava, were prinicipal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. But with the domination of the Indian Ocean by the British fleet and the end of the Arab slave trade, the Sakalava would lose their power to the emerging Merina threat.

According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara). Toliara (also known as Toliary; formerly Tuléar) is a city in Madagascar. They may also be descended from the Zafiraminia (sons of Ramini) clans from the southwestern part of the island, whom many consider to be White, possibly from Arab origin. They were first in contact with European slave-traders, from whom they obtained weapons, mostly in exchange for slaves; they quickly submitted the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance was Andriamisara; his son Andriandahifotsy ("the White Prince") then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River. The Mangoky River is a 564-kilometer-long (350 mi river in Madagascar. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga). Mahajanga (French Majunga) is a City, a district and a province on the north-west coast of Madagascar. At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe) and a northern kingdom (Boina). This is a page about the Menabe Region in Madagascar See also the Sakalava (oblast in Madagascar. The Kingdom of Boina (sometimes known as Iboina) was a traditional state situated in what is now Madagascar. Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.

The historical formation process of the Sakalava kingdom explains the great diversity among its constituents, who continue to perpetuate distinctive regional customs, both culturally and linguistically. The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700000 in population About the latter, the only real unifying factor of the different Sakalava dialects is their common membership to the western subgroup of Madagascar languages, which distinguishes them from central and East coast languages.

The origin of the word Sakalava itself is still subject to controversy, as well as its actual meaning. The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700000 in population The Merina oral histories mention several attacks by Sakalava raiders against their villages as early as the 17th century, and during the entire 18th century; although it is impossible to certify that these have a direct relationship with the coastal kingdom populations. The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700000 in population It seems that in some cases including this one, the term was used generically to design all the nomadic peoples in the sparsely settled territories between the Merina country and the western coast of the island.

The Merina king RadamaI's wars with the western coast of the island would end in a fragile peace sealed through his marriage with the daughter of a king of Menabe. Not to be confused with Mirena. The Merina is the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. This is a page about the Menabe Region in Madagascar See also the Sakalava (oblast in Madagascar. Though the Merina would never annex the two last Sakalava strongholds of Menabe and Boina (Majunga); the Sakalava would never again pose a threat to the central plateau until the French colonisation of the island in 1896. This is a page about the Menabe Region in Madagascar See also the Sakalava (oblast in Madagascar. Mahajanga (French Majunga) is a City, a district and a province on the north-west coast of Madagascar. The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700000 in population

Notably, Sakalavas also form a small minority group in the Comoros. The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ

Africans & Malagasy (Creoles)

Creoles are descended from black slaves imported by European colonists from east Africa and Madagascar to work the plantations of sugarcane, tea, coffee and other agriculture. For the languages see Creole language. For other meanings see Creole (disambiguation. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The first slaves arrived in the Mascarenes and the Seychelles. The Mascarene Islands (or Mascarenhas Archipelago) is a group of Islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar comprising Mauritius Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole Smaller groups went to the Comoros & Mayotte. The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ

Today, Réunion and the Seychelles both have Creole majorities, followed by Mauritius with Creoles forming the second-largest ethnic group. Réunion ( French: Réunion or formally La Réunion; previously Île Bourbon) is an island located in the Indian Ocean, east of Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Comoros and Mayotte also have smal numbers of Creoles. For the languages see Creole language. For other meanings see Creole (disambiguation. Madagascar has population of Creoles descended from Mauritians and Réunionnais. Mauritian Creole people are the people of African and Malagasy origin who live in Mauritius Each island has their own distinct Creole language but with many similarities. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Indians

Indians first arrived in the western Indian Ocean as indentured labourers or coolie, Mauritius being the first country in the world to take up the system of Indian labour. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Coolie (variously spelled Cooly Kuli Quli Koelie etcis A historical term for manual labourers from Asia particularly China and India, in the 19th Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République Because the slave trade was abolished, Europeans needed new work force. Throughout its legacy, Mauritius had admitted 400,000 Indians, Reunion 165,900 and the Seychelles Rodrigues an unspecified number. Seychelles (seɪˈʃɛl or /seɪˈʃɛlz/ in English and seʃɛl in French) officially the Republic of Seychelles (République des Seychelles Creole There were also minority communities in Madagascar and the Comoros. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ In the Chagos Archipelago, the Indians formed the majority of the Chagossian population. The Chagos Archipelago (formerly Oil Islands) is a group of seven Atolls comprising more than 60 individual tropical Islands roughly in the centre of Chagossians (also known as Ilois and Chagos Islanders) are a group of Creole -speaking people Most of the coolies came from India and China, after attempts made from Ethiopia, Mozambique, Madagascar and French provinces. In this ocean, the Indian demographic factor changed the sociological, cultural political and economic landscapes of many lands, from the Mascarene to East and South Africa, from India to Singapore and Malaysia. Many coolies also transited through Mauritius to the West Indies. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Mauritian poet Khal Torabully has advanced a theory of "coolitude" to describe the experience and effects of this diaspora. A poet is a person who writes Poetry. Etymology From the Ancient greek: ποιέω, poieō: "I make or compose" Khal Torabully is a Mauritian and French poet who has coined the concept of "coolitude

Europeans

Since colonial times, European culture and influence has played a major part in the region. It was they who introduced many of the plants and animals to the region, and, as well as introducing newcomers to the inhabited Madagascar, Zanzibar and the Comoros, also introduced the first settlers to Mauritius, Réunion and the Seychelles, plus Agalega, Cargados Carajos, Rodrigues and the Chagos Archipelago. Despite early Dutch and Portuguese activities in the region, as well as the British that followed, French language and culture remains the dominant European influence throughout the region except Zanzibar; It is spoken on most of the islands and is the primary means of communication within the Indian Ocean Commission (represented by Madagascar, France (for Réunion and Mayotte) Mauritius, the Comoros and the Seychelles)

Chinese

The Chinese have a long and reasonably well-documented history in the region. The Indian Ocean Commission ( COI) known as the Commission de l'Océan Indien in French, is an intergovernmental organization that joins Comoros Arriving as traders and businesspeople, the Chinese today speak either Mandarin, Cantonese or Hakka and are mostly Roman Catholic with Buddhist and Taoist minorities. Influence is greatest in Mauritius and Réunion and other nations, like the Comoros, has a very small population of Chinese.

Others

The Comoros has remained greatly influenced by Islamic beliefs and culture, 98% of its people being Muslims. Arabs have settled both in the Comoros and Mayotte, as well as parts of Madagascar. Arabic is spoken as a primary language in Both the Comoros and Mayotte and is taught in Mosques in other Indian Ocean islands.

Smaller numbers of immigrants to the region (such as European, Indian, African and Australian businesspeople, doctors and students) have also introduced their cultures to the region. Italian, African and Mexican foods have now become popular in the Mascarenes, Mayotte and the Seychelles, though Madagascar and the Comoros have not been influenced as much by other cultures.

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