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This article is about the actual crystal skulls. For other uses, see Crystal skull (disambiguation).
The crystal skull at the British Museum, similar in dimensions to the more detailed Mitchell-Hedges skull.
The crystal skull at the British Museum, similar in dimensions to the more detailed Mitchell-Hedges skull. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London.

The crystal skulls are a number of human skull models fashioned from blocks of clear or milky quartz crystal rock, claimed to be pre-Columbian Mesoamerican artifacts by their alleged finders. In humans the adult skull is normally made up of 22 bones Except for the Mandible, all of the bones of the Skull are joined together by sutures, Quartz (from German) is the most abundant Mineral in the Earth 's Continental crust (although Feldspar is more common in The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined However, none of the specimens made available for scientific study were authenticated as pre-Columbian in origin, and in the opinion of the contemporary mainstream scientific community they were manufactured in the mid-19th century or later, almost certainly in Europe. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar [1] Despite some claims presented in an assortment of popularising literature, legends of crystal skulls with mystical powers do not figure in genuine Mesoamerican or other Native American mythologies and spiritual accounts. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. [2]

The skulls are often claimed to exhibit paranormal phenomena by some members of the New Age movement, and have often been portrayed as such in fiction. Paranormal is an Umbrella term used to describe unusual Phenomena or experiences that lack an obvious Scientific explanation New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature Fiction is the telling of stories which are not real More specifically fiction is an imaginative form of Narrative, one of the four basic Rhetorical modes. Perhaps the most widely known of such portrayals occurs in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, the fourth film of its series, and elsewhere[3] within that franchise. The Indiana Jones franchise, based on the Adventures of the eponymous fictional Archaeologist, began in 1981 with the film Crystal skulls have been a popular subject appearing in numerous sci-fi television series,[4] novels and video games. A television program (US television programme (UK or television show (U A video game is a Game that involves interaction with a User interface to generate visual feedback on a video device.

Contents

Crystal skull collections

A distinction has been made by some modern researchers between the smaller bead-sized crystal skulls, which first appear in the mid-19th century, and the larger (approximately life-sized) skulls that appear toward the end of that century. The smaller crystal skulls may be actual Mesoamerican beads that have been carved in modern times into a skull shape; they may even represent a genuine Mexican Catholic cultural practice, as at least one example has been found attached to the base of a crucifix (reflecting a Christian symbolism of Golgotha, the "place of [the] skull"). A crucifix (from Latin cruci fixus meaning "(one fixed to a cross" is a cross with a representation of Jesus ' body or corpus "Golgotha" redirects here For other uses see Golgotha (disambiguation. However, it is the larger crystal skulls that have attracted nearly all the popular attention in recent times, and researchers believe these to have been manufactured as forgeries in Europe.

Trade in fake pre-Columbian artifacts developed during the late 19th century to the extent that in 1886 Smithsonian archaeologist William Henry Holmes wrote an article called "'The Trade in Spurious Mexican Antiquities"' for Science. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of William Henry Holmes ( December 1, 1846 &ndash April 20, 1933) was an American Anthropologist, Archaeologist, Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific [5] Although museums acquired skulls earlier, it was Eugène Boban, an antiquities dealer who opened his shop in Paris in 1870, who is most associated with 19th-century museum collections of crystal skulls. Eugène Boban or Boban-Duvergé (? – 1909 was a French Antiquarian. Most of Boban's collection, including three crystal skulls, was sold to the ethnographer Alphonse Pinart, who donated the collection to the Trocadéro Museum, which later became the Musée de l'Homme. Alphonse Pinart (1852-1911 was a French explorer philologist and ethnographer The Trocadéro, site of the Palais de Chaillot, is an area of Paris, in the 16th ''arrondissement'', across the Seine from the Eiffel Tower The Musée de l'Homme ( French for "Museum of Man" was created in 1937 by Paul Rivet, for the event of the Exposition Internationale

Research into crystal skull origins

Many crystal skulls are claimed to be pre-Columbian, usually attributed to the Aztec or Maya civilizations. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Mesoamerican art has numerous representations of skulls, and none of the skulls in museum collections come from documented excavations. [6] Research carried out on several crystal skulls at the British Museum in 1996 and again in 2004 has shown that the indented lines marking the teeth (for these skulls had no separate jawbone, unlike the Mitchell-Hedges skull) were carved using jeweler's equipment (rotary tools) developed in the 19th century, making a supposed pre-Columbian origin even more dubious. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The type of (rather poor quality) crystal is Brazilian, and unknown within the Aztec or Maya territories. The study concluded that the skulls were crafted in the 19th century in Germany.

It has been established that both the British Museum and Paris's Musée de l'Homme[7] crystal skulls were originally sold by the French antiquities dealer Eugène Boban, who was operating in Mexico City between 1860 and 1880. The Musée de l'Homme ( French for "Museum of Man" was created in 1937 by Paul Rivet, for the event of the Exposition Internationale [8] The British Museum crystal skull transited through New York's Tiffany's, whilst the Musée de l'Homme's crystal skull was donated by Alphonse Pinart, an ethnographer who had bought it from Boban. Alphonse Pinart (1852-1911 was a French explorer philologist and ethnographer

An investigation carried out by the Smithsonian Institution in 1992 on a crystal skull provided by an anonymous source who claimed to have purchased it in Mexico City in 1960 and that it was of Aztec origin concluded that it, too, was made in recent years. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of According to the Smithsonian, Boban acquired the crystal skulls he sold from sources in Germany; findings that are in keeping with those of the British Museum. [9]

A detailed study of the British Museum and Smithsonian crystal skulls was accepted for publication by the Journal of Archaeological Science in May 2008. [10] Using electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography, a team of British and American researchers found that the British Museum skull was worked with a harsh abrasive substance such as corundum or diamond, and shaped using a rotary disc tool made from some suitable metal. An electron microscope is a type of Microscope that uses Electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of Atoms within a Crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters Corundum (from Tamil kurundam குருந்தம் or kuruvindam குருவிந்தம் is a Crystalline form of In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in The Smithsonian specimen had been worked with a different abrasive, namely the silicon-carbon compound carborundum which is a synthetic substance manufactured using modern industrial techniques. Silicon carbide ( is a compound of Silicon and Carbon bonded together to form Ceramics but it also occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral [11] Since the synthesis of carborundum dates only to the 1890s and its wider availability to the 20th century, the researchers concluded "[t]he suggestion is that it was made in the 1950s or later". [12]

In contrast to the large crystal skulls, small examples (several inches in height, larger than beads) are stylistically closer to the numerous representations of skulls in Aztec painting and carving. The fact that none of the examples in museums come from documented excavations does not rule out the likelihood that some small skulls were authentic Aztec creations. In comparison with ancient civilizations like the Maya, few Aztec sites have been excavated yet. A parallel example is provided by obsidian mirrors, ritual objects widely depicted in Aztec art. None of the surviving obsidian mirrors come from archaeological excavations, yet scholars agree that these are legitimate, pre-Spanish Aztec objects. Archaeologist Michael Smith reports a poorly-documented find of a small crystal skull at an Aztec site in the Valley of Mexico. [13] Until more sites are excavated and/or more crystal skulls are excavated, it is premature to suggest that all modern examples are fabrications.

Individual skulls

Mitchell-Hedges skull

Perhaps the most famous and enigmatic skull was allegedly discovered in 1924 by Anna Le Guillon Mitchell-Hedges, adopted daughter of British adventurer and popularist author F.A. Mitchell-Hedges. Frederick Albert Mitchell-Hedges ( 22 October, 1882 - June 1959 was an English Adventurer, Traveller and Writer.

Anna Hedges claimed that she found the skull buried under a collapsed altar inside a temple in Lubaantun, in British Honduras, now Belize. lubantuun black slatejpg|thumb|left|Bases of temple platforms at Lubantuun Belize]] Lubaantun (also Lubaantún or Lubaantán in Spanish orthography British Honduras was the former name of what is now the independent nation of Belize and was a British colony on the east coast of Central Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. [14] As far as can be ascertained, F. A. Mitchell-Hedges himself made no mention of the alleged discovery in any of his writings on Lubaantun. Also, others present at the time of the excavation have not been documented as noting either the skull's discovery or Anna's presence at the dig. [15]

In a 1970 letter, Anna also stated that she was "told by the few remaining Maya, and was used by the high priest to will death". [16] The artifact is sometimes referred to as "The Skull of Doom", either because of its seemingly inexplicable properties and the supposed ill-luck of those who have handled it, or perhaps a play on 'Skull of Dunn' (Dunn being an associate of Mitchell-Hedges). Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull from 1967 and continued to give interviews about the artifact until her death in 2007.

The skull is made from a block of clear quartz about the size of a small human cranium, measuring some 5 inches (13 cm) high, 7 inches (18 cm) long and 5 inches wide. The lower jaw is detached. In the early 1970s it came under the temporary care of freelance art restorer Frank Dorland, who claimed upon inspecting it that it had been "carved" with total disregard to the natural crystal axes without the use of metal tools. Dorland reported being unable to find any tell-tale scratch marks, except for traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth, and speculated it was first chiseled into rough form, probably using diamonds, and the finer shaping, grinding and polishing achieved through the use of sand over a period of 150 to 300 years. Although various claims have been made over the years regarding the skull's physical properties, such as an allegedly constant temperature of 70°F (21°C), Dorland reported that there was no difference in properties between it and other natural quartz crystals. [17]

While in Dorland's care the skull came to the attention of writer Richard Garvin, at the time working at an advertising agency where he supervised Hewlett-Packard's advertising account. Garvin made arrangements for the skull to be examined at HP's crystal labs at Santa Clara, where it was subjected to several tests. The labs determined only that it was not a composite (as Dorland had supposed), but was fashioned from a single crystal of quartz. [18] The lab test also established that the lower jaw had been fashioned from the same left-handed growing crystal as the rest of the skull. [19] No investigation was made by HP as to its method of manufacture or dating. [20]

As well as the traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth noted by Dorland,[21] Mayanist archaeologist Norman Hammond reported that the holes (presumed to be intended for support pegs) showed signs of being made by drilling with metal. [22] Anna Mitchell-Hedges refused subsequent requests to submit the skull to further scientific testing. [23]

F. A. Mitchell-Hedges mentioned the skull only briefly in the first edition of his autobiography, Danger My Ally (1954), without specifying where or by whom it was found. [24] He merely claimed that "it is at least 3,600 years old and according to legend was used by the High Priest of the Maya when performing esoteric rites. It is said that when he willed death with the help of the skull, death invariably followed". [25] All subsequent editions of Danger My Ally omitted mention of the skull entirely. [26]

Eugène Boban, main French dealer in pre-Columbian artifacts during the second half of the 19th century and probable source of many famous skulls
Eugène Boban, main French dealer in pre-Columbian artifacts during the second half of the 19th century and probable source of many famous skulls

The earliest published reference to the skull is the July 1936 issue of the British anthropological journal Man, where it is described as in the possession of Mr. Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Man was a Journal of anthropological research published in London between 1901&ndash1994 by the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Sydney Burney, a London art dealer said to have owned it since 1933. [27] No mention was made of Mitchell-Hedges. There is documentary evidence that Mitchell-Hedges bought it from Burney in 1944. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [28] The skull was in the custody of Anna Mitchell-Hedges, the adopted daughter of Frederick. She steadfastly refused to let it be examined by experts (making very doubtful that claim that it was reported on by R. Stansmore Nutting in 1962). Somewhere between 1988-1990 Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull. In her last eight years Anna Mitchell-Hedges lived in Chesterton, Indiana, with Bill Homann. He took care of her until she died on April 11th, 2007. Since that time the Mitchell-Hedges Skull has been in the custody of Bill Homann.

British Museum skull

The crystal skull of the British Museum first appeared in 1881, in the shop of the Paris antiquarian, Eugène Boban. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Eugène Boban or Boban-Duvergé (? – 1909 was a French Antiquarian. Its origin was not stated in his catalog of the time. He is said to have tried to sell it to Mexico's national museum as an Aztec artifact, but was unsuccessful. Boban later moved his business to New York City, where the skull was sold at auction, and bought by Tiffany and Co., who later sold it at cost to the British Museum in 1897. Tiffany & Co ( is a US jewelry and silverware company founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and Teddy Young in New York City The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. [29] This skull is very similar to the Mitchell-Hedges skull, although it is less detailed and does not have a movable lower jaw. [30]

The British Museum catalogs the skull's provenance as "probably European, 19th century AD"[31] and describes it as "not an authentic pre-Columbian artefact". Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from" means the Origin, or the source, of something or the history of the ownership or location [32] It has been established that this skull was made with modern tools, and that it is not authentic. [33]

Paris skull

The largest of the three skulls sold by Eugène Boban to Alphonse Pinart (sometimes called the Paris Skull), about 10cm (3. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth 9in) high, has a hole drilled vertically through its center. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. It is part of a collection held at the Musée du Quai Branly, and was subjected to scientific tests carried out in 2007–08 by France's national Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France (Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums in France, or C2RMF). The Musée du quai Branly, known in English as the Quai Branly Museum, nicknamed MQB, is a museum in Paris, France that features indigenous The Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France ( C2RMF, Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France) is the national research After a series of analyses carried out over three months, C2RMF engineers concluded that it was "certainly not pre-Columbian, it shows traces of polishing and abrasion by modern tools. "[34] Particle accelerator tests also revealed occluded traces of water that were dated to the 19th century, and the Quai Branly released a statement that the tests "seem to indicate that it was made late in the 19th century. "[35]

Paranormal claims and spiritual associations

People who believe in the psychic power of crystal skulls claim the skulls are a center of radiant psychic energy and have the power to increase happiness and improve people's lives just by being held, handled and spoken with; others have alleged that crystal skulls can be used as some claim crystal balls can be used, to aid divination. Parapsychology is a discipline that seeks to demonstrate the existence and causes of Psychic abilities and life after death using the Scientific method A crystal ball is a Crystal or Glass Ball believed by some people to aid Clairvoyance. Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining In the 1931 play The Satin Slipper, by Paul Claudel, King Philip II of Spain uses "a death's head made from a single piece of rock crystal," lit by "a ray of the setting sun," to see the defeat of his Armada in its attack on England (day 4, scene 4, pp. 243-44). [36]

Claims of the healing and supernatural powers of crystal skulls have no support in the mainstream scientific community. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events The scientific community at large has found no evidence of any unusual phenomena associated with the skulls nor any reason for further investigation, other than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture. [37]

Another novel and historically unfounded speculation ties in the legend of the crystal skulls with the completion of the current Maya calendar b'ak'tun-cycle on December 21, 2012, claiming the re-uniting of the thirteen mystical skulls will forestall a catastrophe allegedly predicted or implied by the ending of this calendar. The Maya calendar is a system of distinct Calendars and Almanacs used by the Maya civilization of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by A baktun is 20 katun cycles of the ancient Maya Long Count Calendar. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian 2012 ( MMXII) will be a Leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. An airing of this claim appeared (among an assortment of others made) in The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls,[38] a 2008 program produced for the Sci Fi Channel in May and shown on Discovery Channel Canada in June. Discovery Channel is a Canadian English language Cable television Specialty channel devoted to nature adventure science and technology programming Interviewees included Richard Hoagland, who attempted to link the skulls and the Maya to life on Mars, and David Hatcher Childress, proponent of lost Atlantean civilizations and anti-gravity claims. Richard Hoagland may refer to Richard C Hoagland, conspiracy theorist famous for his theories on the Face on Mars Richard E David Hatcher Childress (born 1957 is an American Author of books on topics in Alternative history.

The alleged associations and origins of crystal skull mythology in Native American spiritual lore, as advanced by neoshamanic writers such Jamie Sams, are similarly discounted. Neoshamanism, or Neo-Shamanism, is a term applied to certain emergent shamanistic philosophies whether they are a revival of older shamanistic beliefs and traditions Jamie Sams is a member of the Wolf Clan Teaching Lodge She is the coauthor of Medicine Cards The Discovery of Power Through the Ways of Animals author of Dancing the dream [39] Instead, as Philip Jenkins notes, crystal skull mythology may be traced back to the "baroque legends" initially spread by F. Philip Jenkins (b April 3, 1952) is as of 2007 the Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Humanities at Pennsylvania State University (PSU A. Mitchell-Hedges, and then afterwards taken up:

By the 1970s, the crystal skulls [had] entered New Age mythology as potent relics of ancient Atlantis, and they even acquired a canonical number: there were exactly thirteen skulls.
None of this would have anything to do with North American Indian matters, if the skulls had not attracted the attention of some of the most active New Age writers. [40]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ British Museum (n. For the Love of God is a sculpture by artist Damien Hirst produced in 2007 d. -b), Jenkins (2004, p. 217), Sax et al. (2008), Smith (2005), Walsh (1997; 2008)
  2. ^ As Philip Jenkins, former Distinguished Professor of History and Religious Studies and now an endowed Professor of Humanities at PSU notes, crystal skulls are among the more obvious of examples where the association with Native spirituality is a "historically recent" and "artificial" synthesis, "products of a generation of creative spiritual entrepreneurs" that do not "[represent] the practice of any historical community"; see Jenkins (2004, pp. Philip Jenkins (b April 3, 1952) is as of 2007 the Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Humanities at Pennsylvania State University (PSU The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant, space grant public research University 218–219).
  3. ^ See the plot synopses in Hidalgo (2008), and the Indiana Jones novels by Max McCoy (1995, 1996, 1997, 1999).
  4. ^ For example, in Stargate SG-1 season 3 episode #65, "Crystal Skull". Season three of Stargate SG-1, an American - Canadian Television series, began airing on June 25, 1999 on
  5. ^ Holmes (1886)
  6. ^ Walsh (2008)
  7. ^ The specimen at the Musée de l'Homme is half-sized.
  8. ^ See "The mystery of the British Museum's crystal skull is solved. It's a fake", in The Independent (Connor 2005). See also the Museum's issued public statement on its crystal skull (British Museum n. d. -c).
  9. ^ See the account given by Smithsonian anthropologist Jane Walsh of her joint investigations with British Museum's materials scientist Margaret Sax, which ascertained the crystal skull specimens to be 19th century fakes, in Smith (2005). See also Walsh (1997).
  10. ^ Sax et al. (2008)
  11. ^ Carborundum (Silicon carbide) occurs naturally only in minute amounts in the extremely rare mineral moissanite, first identified in a meteorite in 1893. Moissanite or Silicon carbide (SiC is a rare mineral that can be found in meteorites and in terrestrial samples A meteorite is a natural object originating in Outer space that survives an impact with the Earth 's surface See summary of the discovery and history of silicon carbide in Kelly (n. d. )
  12. ^ See reportage of the study in Rincon (2008), and the study itself in Sax et al. (2008).
  13. ^ Michael E. Smith, "Aztec Crystal Skulls," Publishing Archaeology Blog [1]
  14. ^ See Garvin (1973, caption to photo 25); also Nickell (2007, p. 67).
  15. ^ Nickell (2007, pp. 68–69)
  16. ^ Garvin (1973, p. 93)
  17. ^ Dorland, in a May 1983 letter to Joe Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p. 70).
  18. ^ See Garvin (1973, pp. 75–76), also Hewlett-Packard (1971, p. 9). The test conducted involved immersing the skull in a liquid (Benzyl alcohol) with the same diffraction coefficient and viewing it under polarized light. Benzyl alcohol is an Organic compound with the formula C6H5CH2OH Diffraction is normally taken to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle Polarization ( ''Brit'' polarisation) is a property of Waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations
  19. ^ Garvin (1973, pp. 75–76); Hewlett-Packard (1971, p. 9).
  20. ^ Hewlett-Packard (1971, p. 10).
  21. ^ Garvin (1973, p. 84); also cited in Nickell (2007, p. 70).
  22. ^ Hammond, in a May 1983 letter to Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p. 70).
  23. ^ Nickell (2007, p. 69)
  24. ^ See Mitchell-Hedges (1954, pp. 240–243); also description of same in the chapter "Riddle of the Crystal Skulls", in Nickell (2007, pp. 67–73).
  25. ^ Mitchell-Hedges' quote, as reproduced in Nickell (2007, p. 67).
  26. ^ Nickell (2007, pp. 68–69)
  27. ^ See Morant (1936, p. 105), and comments in Digby (1936). See also discussion of the prior ownership in Nickell (2007, p. 69).
  28. ^ Nickell (2007, p. 69)
  29. ^ British Museum (n. d. -a, n. d. -b)
  30. ^ Digby (1936)
  31. ^ British Museum (n. d. -a)
  32. ^ British Museum (n. d. -c). See also articles on the investigations which established it to be a fake, in Connor (2005), Jury (2005), Smith (2005), and Walsh (1997, 2008).
  33. ^ Rincon (2008), Sax et al. (2008)
  34. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008).
  35. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008). See also Walsh (2008).
  36. ^ Claudel, Paul. The Satin Slipper. Trans. John O'Connor and Paul Claudel. London: Sheed & Ward, 1931. Originally published as Le Soulier de Satin (Paris: Nouvelle Revue Française).
  37. ^ See Nickell (2007, pp. 67–73); Smith (2005); Walsh (1997; 2008).
  38. ^ John Schriber (Executive Producer). Kevin Huffman, Erin McGarry, Andrew Rothstein and Andrea Skipper (Producers). Jayme Roy (Director of Photography). Lester Holt (Presenter). Lester Holt (born March 8, 1959 in Marin County California) is an American Anchor for NBC News ' weekend NBC Nightly (May 2008) The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls [television program]. New York: Peacock Productions (NBC), in association with the Sci Fi Channel. The National Broadcasting Company ( NBC) is an American Television network headquartered in the GE Building in New York City's URL accessed on 2008-06-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
  39. ^ See discussion of the various claims put forward by Sams, Kenneth Meadows, Harley Swift Deer Reagan and others concerning crystal skulls, extra-terrestrials, and Native American lore, in Jenkins (2004, pp. Ancient astronaut theories or paleocontact are various proposals that intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth and that this contact 215–218).
  40. ^ Quotation from Jenkins (2004, pp. 217–218).

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Hidalgo, Pablo (2008-04-07). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor The Lost Chronicles of Young Indiana Jones. StarWars. com. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João
Holmes, William H. (1886-02-19). William Henry Holmes ( December 1, 1846 &ndash April 20, 1933) was an American Anthropologist, Archaeologist, Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum "The trade in spurious Mexican antiquities". Science, new series ns-7 (159S): pp. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific 170–172. Cambridge, MA: The Science Company, and Moses King. doi:10.1126/science.ns-7.159S.170. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0036-8075. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. OCLC 213776464. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Hruby, Zachary (May 2008). Critical Notes on "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull". Mesoweb Reports & News. Mesoweb. Retrieved on 2008-06-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected
Jenkins, Philip (2004). Philip Jenkins (b April 3, 1952) is as of 2007 the Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Humanities at Pennsylvania State University (PSU Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516115-7. OCLC 54074085. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Jury, Louise (2005-05-24). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned "Art market scandal: British Museum expert highlights growing problem of fake antiquities". The Independent. The Independent is a British compact Newspaper published by Tony O'Reilly 's Independent News & Media. London: Independent News & Media. Independent News & Media plc ( INM) is a media organisation based in Dublin, Ireland with interests in 22 countries on 4 continentsworldwide  
Kelly, Jim (n. d. ). A brief history of SiC. Industrial Materials Group, University College London. University College London ( UCL) is a multi-faculty university institution based in the United Kingdom and a constituent college of the University of London Retrieved on 2008-05-23. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne
McCoy, Max (1995). Indiana Jones and the Philosopher's Stone. Indiana Jones and the Philosopher's Stone is a 1995 novel by Max McCoy. New York: Bantam Books. Bantam Books is a major US publishing house owned by Random House and is part of the Bantam Dell Publishing Group ISBN 978-0-553-56196-8. OCLC 32417516. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
McCoy, Max (1996). Indiana Jones and the Dinosaur Eggs. New York: Bantam Books. Bantam Books is a major US publishing house owned by Random House and is part of the Bantam Dell Publishing Group ISBN 978-0-553-56193-7. OCLC 34306261. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
McCoy, Max (1997). Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth. New York: Bantam Books. Bantam Books is a major US publishing house owned by Random House and is part of the Bantam Dell Publishing Group ISBN 978-0-553-56195-1. OCLC 36380785. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
McCoy, Max (1999). Indiana Jones and the Secret of the Sphinx. New York: Bantam Books. Bantam Books is a major US publishing house owned by Random House and is part of the Bantam Dell Publishing Group ISBN 978-0-553-56197-5. OCLC 40775168. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Mitchell-Hedges, F.A. (1954). Frederick Albert Mitchell-Hedges ( 22 October, 1882 - June 1959 was an English Adventurer, Traveller and Writer. Danger My Ally. London: Elek Books. OCLC 2117472. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Morant, G. M. (July 1936). "A Morphological Comparison of Two Crystal Skulls". Man 36: pp. Man was a Journal of anthropological research published in London between 1901&ndash1994 by the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great 105–107. London: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI is the world's longest established anthropological organisation with a global membership ISSN 0025-1496. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. OCLC 42646610. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Nickell, Joe (2007). Joe Nickell was born December 1, 1944. He is a former stage magician and is a prominent skeptical investigator of the Paranormal Adventures in Paranormal Investigation. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. The University Press of Kentucky (UPK is the scholarly Publisher for the Commonwealth of Kentucky, and was organized in 1969 as successor to the University of Kentucky ISBN 978-0-8131-2467-4. OCLC 137305722. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Rincon, Paul (2008-05-22). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Crystal skulls 'are modern fakes'. Science/Nature. BBC News online. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus.
Rosemberg, Claire [AFP] (2008-04-18). Agence France-Presse ( AFP) is the oldest News agency in the world and one of the three largest with Associated Press and Reuters. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. "Skullduggery, Indiana Jones? Museum says crystal skull not Aztec". Yahoo! News. Yahoo! News is an Internet -based News aggregator provided by Yahoo!.  
Sax, Margaret; Jane M. Walsh, Ian C. Freestone, Andrew H. Rankin, and Nigel D. Meeks (May 2008). "The origin of two purportedly pre-Columbian Mexican crystal skulls". Journal of Archaeological Science Article in Press (accepted manuscript). London: Elsevier Science. Elsevier, the world's largest Publisher of Medical and Scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.05.007. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 1095-9238. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. OCLC 36982975. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Smith, Donald (2005). "With a high-tech microscope, scientist exposes hoax of 'ancient' crystal skulls" (online edition). Inside Smithsonian Research 9 (Summer). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Office of Public Affairs. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of OCLC 52905641. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Walsh, Jane MacLaren (1997). "Crystal skulls and other problems: or, “don't look it in the eye”", in Amy Henderson and Adrienne L. Kaeppler (eds. ): Exhibiting Dilemmas: Issues of Representation at the Smithsonian. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of ISBN 1560986905. OCLC 34598037. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  
Walsh, Jane MacLaren (May/June 2008). "Legend of the Crystal Skulls" (online edition). Archaeology 61 (3). Archaeology is a Bimonthly mainstream magazine about Archaeology, published by the Archaeological Institute of America; the editors estimate New York: Archaeological Institute of America. The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA is a North American Nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of public interest in Archaeology, ISSN 0003-8113. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. OCLC 1481828. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose  

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