- "Crusader" redirects here. For comic book characters, see Crusader (comics). Crusader, in comics, may refer to Crusader (Marvel Comics, a Marvel Comics supervillain Crusader X, an alternate version For the music group, see The Crusaders. The Crusaders are an American music group popular in the early 1970s known for their amalgamated Jazz, pop and soul sound For the boat see Crusader (speedboat). The Crusader was a jet -powered speed boat piloted by John Cobb.
The Crusades were a series of military conflicts of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal threats; there was also rioting. A religious war is a War caused by religious differences It can involve one state with an established religion against another state with a different religion or a different A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Crusades were fought mainly against Muslims, though campaigns were also directed against pagan Slavs, Jews, Russian and Greek Orthodox Christians, Mongols, Cathars, Hussites, and political enemies of the popes. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus or John Huss (c History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and [1] Crusaders took vows and were granted an indulgence for past sins. A vow ( Lat votum, vow promise see Vote) is a promise or Oath. An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven [1]
The Crusades originally had the goal of recapturing Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim rule and were originally launched in response to a call from the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire for help against the expansion of the Muslim Seljuk Turks into Anatolia. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The term is also used to describe contemporaneous and subsequent campaigns conducted through to the 16th century in territories outside the Levant[2] usually against pagans, heretics, and peoples under the ban of excommunication[3] for a mixture of religious, economic, and political reasons. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community [4] Rivalries among both Christian and Muslim powers led also to alliances between religious factions against their opponents, such as the Christian alliance with the Sultanate of Rum during the Fifth Crusade. The Fifth Crusade ( 1217 &ndash 1221) was an attempt to take back Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering the powerful
The Crusades had far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts, some of which have lasted into contemporary times. Because of internal conflicts among Christian kingdoms and political powers, some of the crusade expeditions were diverted from their original aim, such as the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the sack of Christian Constantinople and the partition of the Byzantine Empire between Venice and the Crusaders. The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica The Sixth Crusade was the first crusade to set sail without the official blessing of the Pope,[5] establishing the precedent that rulers other than the Pope could initiate a crusade. The Sixth Crusade started in 1228 as an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. The Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Crusades resulted in Mamluk and Hafsid victories, as the Ninth Crusade marked the end of the Crusades in the Middle East. The Seventh Crusade was a Crusade led by Louis IX of France from 1248 to 1254. The Eighth Crusade was a Crusade launched by Louis IX, King of France, in The Ninth Crusade, which is sometimes grouped with the Eighth Crusade, is commonly considered to be the last major medieval Crusade to the Holy Land Hafsid was a dynasty ruling Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) from 1229 to 1574. The Ninth Crusade, which is sometimes grouped with the Eighth Crusade, is commonly considered to be the last major medieval Crusade to the Holy Land The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. [6]
Historical context
| It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea of a holy war emerged from this background. Norman F. Cantor |
Middle Eastern situation
The Muslim presence in the Holy Land began with the initial Arab conquest of Palestine in the 7th century. Norman F Cantor (born in Winnipeg, Canada on November 19, 1929, died in Miami Florida, United States on September The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. This did not interfere much with pilgrimage to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land, and western Europeans were less concerned with the loss of far-away Jerusalem than, in the ensuing decades and centuries, the invasions of Europe by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians, such as the Vikings, Slavs and Magyars (some of which later became Christians). In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. However, the Muslim armies' successes put increasing pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world
Another factor that contributed to the change in Western attitudes towards the East came in the year 1009, when the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh ( Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command" was the sixth Fatimid The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum also called the Church of the Resurrection, ( Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως Naos tis Anastaseos In 1039 his successor, after requiring large sums be paid for the right, permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it. [7] Pilgrimages were allowed to the Holy Lands before and after the Sepulchre was rebuilt, but for a time pilgrims were captured and some of the clergy were killed. The Muslim conquerors eventually realized that the wealth of Jerusalem came from the pilgrims; with this realization the persecution of pilgrims stopped. [8] However, the damage was already done, and the violence of the Seljuk Turks became part of the concern that spread the passion for the Crusades. [9]
Western European situation
The origins of the Crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the Middle Ages, as well as the deteriorating situation of the Byzantine Empire in the east caused by a new wave of Turkish Muslim attacks. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The breakdown of the Carolingian Empire in the late 9th century, combined with the relative stabilization of local European borders after the Christianization of the Vikings, Slavs, and Magyars, had produced a large class of armed warriors whose energies were misplaced fighting one another and terrorizing the local populace. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. The Church tried to stem this violence with the Peace and Truce of God movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their skills, and opportunities for territorial expansion were becoming less attractive for large segments of the nobility. The Peace and Truce of God was a Medieval European movement of the Catholic Church that applied spiritual sanctions in order to limit the violence of Private war One exception was the Reconquista in Spain and Portugal, which at times occupied Iberian knights and some mercenaries from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic Moors, who had successfully overrun most of the Iberian Peninsula over the preceding two centuries. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra
In 1063, Pope Alexander II had given his blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the vexillum sancti Petri) and an indulgence to those who were killed in battle. Alexander II (died April 21, 1073) born Anselmo da Baggio, was Pope from 1061 to 1073 An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven Pleas from the Byzantine Emperors, now threatened by the Seljuks, thus fell on ready ears. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled These occurred in 1074, from Emperor Michael VII to Pope Gregory VII and in 1095, from Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to Pope Urban II. Pope Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118 Pope One source identifies Michael VII in Chinese records as a ruler of Byzantium (Fulin) who sent an envoy to Song Dynasty China in 1081. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms [10][11] A Chinese scholar suggests that this and further Byzantine envoys in 1091 were pleas for China to aid in the fight against the Turks. [12]
The Crusades were, in part, an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. A crusader would, after pronouncing a solemn vow, receive a cross from the hands of the pope or his legates, and was thenceforth considered a "soldier of the Church". A Papal Legate – from the Latin authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the Pope to Foreign nations or to some part of the Catholic This was partly because of the Investiture Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over As both sides of the Investiture Controversy tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs. This was further strengthened by religious propaganda, advocating Just War in order to retake the Holy Land—which included Jerusalem (where the death, resurrection and ascension into heaven of Jesus took place according to Christian theology) and Antioch (the first Christian city)—from the Muslims. Just War theory is a Doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral Theologians Ethicists and international The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend The general and most common understanding of the Christian Doctrine of Ascension holds that Jesus bodily ascended to Heaven in the presence Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Further, the remission of sin was a driving factor. This provided any God-fearing man who had committed sins with an irresistible way out of eternal damnation in Hell. Hell, according to many Religious beliefs, is a location in the Afterlife, which may be described as a place of suffering It was a hotly debated issue throughout the Crusades as what exactly "remission of sin" meant. Most believed that by retaking Jerusalem they would go straight to heaven after death. However, much controversy surrounds exactly what was promised by the popes of the time. One theory was that one had to die fighting for Jerusalem for the remission to apply, which would hew more closely to what Pope Urban II said in his speeches. Pope This meant that if the crusaders were successful, and retook Jerusalem, the survivors would not be given remission. Another theory was that if one reached Jerusalem, one would be relieved of the sins one had committed before the Crusade. Therefore one could still be sentenced to Hell for sins committed afterwards. Hell, according to many Religious beliefs, is a location in the Afterlife, which may be described as a place of suffering
All of these factors were manifested in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade and the religious vitality of the 12th century.
Immediate cause
The immediate cause of the First Crusade was the Byzantine emperor Alexios I's appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118 Pope In 1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire was defeated, which led to the loss of all of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) save the coastlands. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Although attempts at reconciliation after the East-West Schism between the Catholic Western Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church had failed, Alexius I hoped for a positive response from Urban II and got it, although it turned out to be more expansive and less helpful than he had expected. The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world
When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of Galicia and Asturias, the Basque Country and Navarre, with increasing success, for about a hundred years. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an The fall of Moorish Toledo to the Kingdom of León in 1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the Reconquista still lay in the future. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain Kingdom of León was an independent kingdom situated in the northwest region of the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The disunity of Muslim emirs was an essential factor.
While the Reconquista was the most prominent example of European reactions against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in 1057 and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of Sicily. The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. Robert Guiscard (from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The maritime states of Pisa, Genoa and Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in Majorca and Sardinia, freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Majorca ( Spanish and Mallorca is the largest island of Spain. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Much earlier, the Christian homelands of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and so on had been conquered by Muslim armies. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands starting with Jerusalem.
The papacy of Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had, with difficulty, resolved the question in favour of justified violence. Pope More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Saint Augustine of Hippo, Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in The City of God, and a Christian "just war" might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. Just War theory is a Doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral Theologians Ethicists and international The northerners would be cemented to Rome, and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the "Peace of God", were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople, which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
In the Byzantine homelands, the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexios I to his enemy, the Pope, for aid. Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118 But Gregory was occupied with the Investiture Controversy and could not call on the German emperor, so a crusade never took shape. The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over
For Gregory's more moderate successor, Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. Pope The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French.
After the First Crusade
On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the movement of the Crusader mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ During many of the attacks on Jews, local Bishops and Christians made attempts to protect Jews from the mobs that were passing through. Jews were often offered sanctuary in churches and other Christian buildings.
In the 13th century, Crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in 1291 and the Occitan Cathars were exterminated during the Albigensian Crusade, the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe. Occitania ( Occitan: Occitània) refers to the lands where Occitan is the traditional language in use though more recently viewed as a minority language The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209&ndash1229 was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar
The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the Knights Hospitaller. The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St After the final fall of Acre, they took control of the island of Rhodes, and in the sixteenth century, were driven to Malta, before being finally unseated by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. Rhodes (Ρόδος Ródos, ˈɾo̞ðo̞s Rodi ردوس Rodos; Ladino: Rodi or Rodes) is a Greek island Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe.
List of crusades
A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades totals nine during the 11th to 13th centuries. This division is arbitrary and excludes many important expeditions, among them those of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. In reality, the crusades continued until the end of the 17th century, the crusade of Lepanto occurring in 1571, that of Hungary in 1664, and the crusade to Candia in 1669. The Battle of Lepanto ( Greek: Ναύπακτος Naupaktos, pron The Battle of Saint Gotthard (Szentgotthárd was fought on August 1 1664 between an Habsburg army led by Raimondo Montecuccoli, Jean de The Siege of Candia (modern Heraklion, Crete) was a military conflict in which Ottoman forces besieged the Venetian -ruled city and were ultimately [13] The Knights Hospitaller continued to crusade in the Mediterranean Sea around Malta until their defeat by Napoleon in 1798. The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. There were frequent "minor" Crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in the Iberian Peninsula and central Europe, against Muslims and also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs.
First Crusade 1095-1099
In March 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, ambassadors sent by Byzantine Emperor Alexius I called for help with defending his empire against the Seljuk Turks. The Council of Piacenza was a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Roman Catholic Church, which took place from March 1 to March 5, 1095 This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118 The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in Later that year, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, promising those who died in the endeavor would receive immediate remission of their sins. The Council of Clermont was a mixed Synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Catholic Church, which was held on November 27 1095 at Clermont France Pope [14] Sigurd I of Norway was the first European king who went on a crusade and crusader armies managed to defeat two substantial Turkish forces at Dorylaeum and at Antioch. "Sigurd Jorsalfar" redirects here For the orchestral suite by Edvard Grieg see Sigurd Jorsalfar (Grieg. The Battle of Dorylaeum took place during the First Crusade on July 1, 1097, between the Crusaders and the Seljuk Turks, near Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also
The Siege of Antioch took place shortly before the siege on Jerusalem during the first Crusade. For other uses please see Siege of Antioch (disambiguation The Siege of Antioch took place during the First Crusade in 1097 Antioch fell to the Franks in May 1098 but not before a lengthy siege. The ruler of Antioch was not sure how the Christians living within his city would react and he forced them to live outside the city during the siege, though he promised to protect their wives and children from harm, while Jews and Muslims fought together. The siege only came to end when the city was betrayed and the Franks entered through the water-gate of the town causing the leader to flee. Once inside the city, as was standard military practice at the time,[15] the Franks then massacred the civilians, destroyed mosques and pillaged the city. [16] The crusaders finally marched to the walls of Jerusalem with only a fraction of their original forces.
Siege of Jerusalem
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. The Siege of Jerusalem took place from June 7 to July 15, 1099 during the First Crusade. They were unsuccessful though and on 15 July 1099 the crusaders entered the city. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final [16] Again, they proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself. [17] The "isolation, alienation and fear"[1] felt by the Franks so far from home helps to explain the atrocities they committed, including the cannibalism which was recorded after the Siege of Maarat in 1098. The Siege of Maarat, or Ma'arra, occurred in 1098 in the city of Ma'arrat al-Numan, in what is modern-day Syria, during the First Crusade [18] As a result of the First Crusade, several small Crusader states were created, notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusader states were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal states created by Western European Crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian
The Crusaders also tried to gain control of the city of Tyre, but were defeated by the Muslims. The people of Tyre asked Zahir al-Din Atabek, the leader of Damascus, for help defending their city from the Franks with the promise to surrender Tyre to him. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. When the Franks were defeated the people of Tyre did not surrender the city, but Zahir al-Din simply said “What I have done I have done only for the sake of God and the Muslims, nor out of desire for wealth and kingdom. ”[19]
After gaining control of Jerusalem the Crusaders created four Crusader states: the kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch and the County of Tripoli. This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian The County of Edessa was one of the Crusader states in the 12th century, based around a city with an ancient history and an early tradition of Christianity The Principality of Antioch, including parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria, was one of the Crusader states created during the First Crusade The County of Tripoli (1109–1289 was the last Crusader state founded in the Levant, located in what today is known as northern Lebanon [20] Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to internal conflicts. [21] Eventually, the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of Imad al-Din Zangi. He began by re-taking Edessa in 1144. It was the first city to fall to the Crusaders, and became the first to be recaptured by the Muslims. This led the Pope to call for a second Crusade.
Crusade of 1101
Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders. The Crusade of 1101 was a minor Crusade of three separate movements organized in 1100 and 1101 in the successful aftermath of the First Crusade This is known as the Crusade of 1101 and may be considered an adjunct of the First Crusade.
Second Crusade 1147–1149
After a period of relative peace in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the Holy Land, Muslims conquered the town of Edessa. The Second Crusade (1147&ndash1149 was the second major Crusade launched from Europe, called in 1145 in response to the fall of the County of Edessa the The County of Edessa was one of the Crusader states in the 12th century, based around a city with an ancient history and an early tradition of Christianity A new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by Bernard of Clairvaux. Bernard of Clairvaux, OCist ( 1090 - August 20, 1153) was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order French and South German armies, under the Kings Louis VII and Conrad III respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of Damascus, an independent city that would soon fall into the hands of Nur ad-Din, the main enemy of the Crusaders. Louis VII, called the Younger or the Young (Louis le Jeune 1120 – 18 September 1180) was King of France, the son and successor Conrad III (1093 &ndash 15 February 1152) was the first King of Germany of the Hohenstaufen dynasty [22] On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders stopped in Portugal, allied with the Portuguese, and retook Lisbon from the Muslims in 1147. [22] In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland. [3] North Germans and Danes attacked the Wends during the 1147 Wendish Crusade, which was unsuccessful as well. The Wendish Crusade (Wendenkreuzzug was an 1147 campaign one of the Northern Crusades and also a part of the Second Crusade, led primarily by the Kingdom of
Third Crusade 1187–1192
In 1187, Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem, following the Battle of Hattin. The Third Crusade (1189&ndash1192 also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c After taking Jerusalem back from the Christians the Muslims spared civilians and for the most part left churches and shrines untouched to be able to collect ransom money from the Franks. Saladin is remembered respectfully in both European and Islamic sources as a man who "always stuck to his promise and was loyal. "[23] The reports of Saladin's victories shocked Europe. Pope Gregory VIII called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: Philip II of France, Richard I of England (aka Richard the Lionheart), and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Not to be confused with the earlier Antipope Gregory VIII Pope Gregory VIII (c Philip II Augustus (Philippe Auguste ( 21 August[[ 165]] &ndash 14 July 1223) was the King of France from 1180 until his death Richard I (8 September 1157 &ndash 6 April 1199 was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned Frederick drowned in Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Before his arrival in the Holy Land Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191. [22] Cyprus would serve as a Crusader base for centuries to come, and would remain in Western European hands until the Ottoman Empire conquered the island from Venice in 1571. [22] After reaching port, Richard the Lionheart promised to leave noncombatants unharmed if the city of Acre surrendered. The brutality of an outnumbered army in a hostile land could be seen again when the city surrendered and Richard proceeded to massacre everyone, despite his earlier promise. [24] From the Frankish point of view, an oath made to a non-Christian was no oath at all. Philip left, in 1191, after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed south along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They defeated the Muslims near Arsuf, recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem. ArsufJPG|right|thumbnail|450px|Remains of the stronghold]] Arsuf (אַרְסוּף ארשוף أرصف also known as Arsur or Apollonia, was an ancient city [22] However, Richard did not believe he would be able to hold Jerusalem once it was captured, as the majority of Crusaders would then return to Europe, and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem. [22] Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The treaty allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to the Holy Land (Jerusalem), while it remained under Muslim control.
On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria, where his enemy, Duke Leopold, captured him. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Leopold V (1157 &ndash December 31, 1194) the Virtuous, was a Babenberg Duke of Austria from 1177 to 1194 and Styria The Duke delivered Richard to the Emperor Henry VI, who held the King for ransom. Henry VI (November 1165 – 28 September 1197) was King of Germany from 1190 to 1197 Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 to 1197 and King By 1197, Henry felt ready for a crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Richard I died during fighting in Europe and never returned to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade is sometimes referred to as the Kings' Crusade.
Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
The Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by Pope Innocent III, with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January Because the Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions that they had contracted from the Venetians, Doge Enrico Dandolo enlisted the crusaders to restore the Christian city of Zara (Zadar) to obedience. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the The Doge ( Venetian language, also Doxe, derived from Latin Dux military leader duke cf Enrico Dandolo (also Anglicised Henry Dandolo or in Latin Henricus Dandulus, 1107? &ndash June 21 1205) was the Doge Zadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea, with a population of 72717 (2001 Because they subsequently lacked provisions and time on their vessel lease, the leaders decided to go to Constantinople, where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the Crusaders sacked the city in 1204, ending in the establishment of the Eastern Latin Empire throughout the Greek Byzantine Empire. The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople (original Latin name Imperium Romaniae, " Empire of Romania " is the This is often seen as the final breaking point of the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox Church and (Western) Roman Catholic Church. The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world
Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (the south of modern-day France). The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209&ndash1229 was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Occitania ( Occitan: Occitània) refers to the lands where Occitan is the traditional language in use though more recently viewed as a minority language This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. It was a decade-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.
Children's Crusade
The Children's Crusade is a series of possibly fictitious or misinterpreted events of 1212. The Children's Crusade is the name given to a variety of fictional and factual events which happened in 1212 that combine some or all of these elements visions by a French or German boy The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January The leader of the French army, Stephen, led 30,000 children. The leader of the German army, Nicholas, led 7,000 children. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land: those who did not return home or settle along the route to Jerusalem either died from shipwreck or hunger, or were sold into slavery in Egypt or North Africa. A shipwreck can refer to a wrecked ship or to the event that caused the wreck such as the striking of something that causes the ship to sink the stranding of the ship on rocks Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan
Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade afoot, and the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. The Fifth Crusade ( 1217 &ndash 1221) was an attempt to take back Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering the powerful The Fourth Council of the Lateran was summoned by Pope Innocent III with his Papal bull of April 19, 1213. In the first phase, a crusading force from Austria and Hungary joined the forces of the king of Jerusalem and the prince of Antioch to take back Jerusalem. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The Principality of Antioch, including parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria, was one of the Crusader states created during the First Crusade In the second phase, crusader forces achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the papal legate, Pelagius, they then launched a foolhardy attack on Cairo in July of 1221. Damietta, Damiata, or Domyat (دمياط is a port and the capital of the governorate of Domyat, Egypt. A Papal Legate – from the Latin authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the Pope to Foreign nations or to some part of the Catholic Pelagio Galvani (b ca 1165, Guimaraes or Gusindos León — d Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. The crusaders were turned back after their dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat. A nighttime attack by the ruler of Egypt, the powerful Sultan Al-Kamil, resulted in a great number of crusader losses and eventually in the surrender of the army. Al-Kamil (الكامل ( epithet: al-Malik al-Kamel Naser al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali Muhammed) (1180-1238 was an Ayyubid Sultan of Kurdish Al-Kamil agreed to an eight-year peace agreement with Europe.
Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX in 1228. The Sixth Crusade started in 1228 as an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. Frederick II ( December 26, 1194 &ndash December 13, 1250) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was a Pretender to the title Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August He nonetheless set sail from Brindisi, landed in Palestine, and through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success: Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem were delivered to the crusaders for a period of ten years. Brindisi can also refer to a song in which a company is exhorted to drink such as the "Tea-Cup Brindisi" in Gilbert and Sullivan 's " The Nazareth (ˈnæzərəθ (נָצְרַת Hebrew Natz'rat or Natzeret, الناصرة an-Nāṣira or an-Naseriyye) is the capital and largest Bethlehem ( بيت لحم,, lit "House of Meat" Βηθλεέμ Bethleém בית לחם Beit Lehem, lit "House of Bread" is a
In 1229 after failing to conquer Egypt, Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil, the ruler of Egypt. Damietta, Damiata, or Domyat (دمياط is a port and the capital of the governorate of Domyat, Egypt. Frederick II may refer to Frederick II Holy Roman Emperor (1194&ndash1250 king 1211/12&ndash1250 emperor since 1220 Frederick II of Austria The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Al-Kamil (الكامل ( epithet: al-Malik al-Kamel Naser al-Din Abu al-Ma'ali Muhammed) (1180-1238 was an Ayyubid Sultan of Kurdish This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aksa mosque. The Dome of the Rock ( Arabic: مسجد قبة الصخرة translit The peace brought about by this treaty lasted for about ten years. [25]Many of the Muslims though were not happy with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem and in 1244 the Muslims regained control of the city. [26]
Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
The papal interests represented by the Templars brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a Khwarezmian force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. The Seventh Crusade was a Crusade led by Louis IX of France from 1248 to 1254. The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " The crusaders were drawn into battle at La Forbie in Gaza. The Battle of La Forbie, also known as the Battle of Harbiyah, was fought October 17, 1244 &ndash October 18, 1244 between the allied Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeated within forty-eight hours by Baibars' force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. Baibars, or al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic ar الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the Kingdom of Outremer. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of Aigues-Mortes in southern France. Outremer, French ( outre-mer) for " Overseas " was the general name given to the Crusader states established after the Aigues-Mortes is a commune in the Gard department in southern France. It was a failure, and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first Shepherds' Crusade in 1251. The Shepherds' Crusade refers to separate events from the 13th and 14th century.
Eighth Crusade 1270
The eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the crusader states in Syria. The Eighth Crusade was a Crusade launched by Louis IX, King of France, in Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية However, the crusade was diverted to Tunis, where Louis spent only two months before dying. Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis For his efforts, Louis was later canonised. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.
Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
The future Edward I of England undertook another expedition against Baibars in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. Baibars, or al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic ar الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري The Ninth Crusade, which is sometimes grouped with the Eighth Crusade, is commonly considered to be the last major medieval Crusade to the Holy Land Edward I (17 June 1239 – 7 July 1307 popularly known as Longshanks, was a King of England who achieved historical fame by conquering large parts of Wales and almost Baibars, or al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic ar الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري Louis died in Tunisia. The Ninth Crusade was deemed a failure and ended of the Crusades in the Middle East. [27]
In their later years, faced with the threat of the Egyptian Mamluks, the Crusaders' hopes rested with a Franco-Mongol alliance. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. The Ilkhanate's Mongols were thought to be sympathetic to Christianity, and the Frankish princes were most effective in gathering their help, engineering their invasions of the Middle East on several occasions. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in Although the Mongols successfully attacked as far south as Damascus on these campaigns, the ability to effectively coordinate with Crusades from the west was repeatedly frustrated most notably at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between The Mamluks eventually made good their pledge to cleanse the entire Middle East of the Franks. With the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291), those Christians unable to leave the cities were massacred or enslaved and the last traces of Christian rule in the Levant disappeared. The Principality of Antioch, including parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria, was one of the Crusader states created during the First Crusade The County of Tripoli (1109–1289 was the last Crusader state founded in the Levant, located in what today is known as northern Lebanon The Siege of Acre (also called the Fall of Acre) took place in 1291 and resulted in the loss of the Crusader -control city of Acre to the Muslims The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the [28][29]
The very last Frankish foothold was the island of Ruad, three kilometers from the Syrian shore, which was occupied for several years by the Knights Templar but was ultimately lost to the Mamluks in the Siege of Ruad on September 26th, 1302. The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order The Siege of Arwad or Siege of Ruad took place around 1302 on the island of Arwad on the Syrian coast
Northern Crusades (Baltic and Germany)
The Crusades in the Baltic Sea area and in Central Europe were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Crusades undertaken by the Catholic kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the 16th century.
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, Saxons and Danes fought against Polabian Slavs in the 1147 Wendish Crusade. The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The term Dane may refer to People with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity whether living in Denmark, emigrants or the descendants of emigrants The Wendish Crusade (Wendenkreuzzug was an 1147 campaign one of the Northern Crusades and also a part of the Second Crusade, led primarily by the Kingdom of In the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights led Germans, Poles, and Pomeranians against the Old Prussians during the Prussian Crusade. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. The Pomeranians (Pomeranen Pòmòrzónie Pomorzanie were a group of West Slavic Tribes who lived along the shore of the Baltic Sea between Oder "Prussians" redirects here "Prussians" may also refer to citizens of the former German state of Prussia. The Prussian Crusade was a series of 13th-century campaigns of Roman Catholic crusaders, primarily led by the Teutonic Knights, to Christianize
Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the Stedingers. Stedingen is an area north of Bremen in the delta of the Weser river in north-western Germany. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were not heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free Frisian farmers who resented attempts of the count of Oldenburg and the archbishop Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is a historical state in today's Germany named for its capital Oldenburg. The Archdiocese of Bremen is a historical Roman Catholic diocese and a former eccesiastical state in the Holy Roman Empire. The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.
The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can also be considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Pskov Republic ( Псковская республика in Russian) was a Russian Medieval state between the second half of the 13th century The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the Battle of the Ice in 1242. The Battle of the Ice (Ледовое побоище Ledovoe poboishche; Schlacht auf dem Eise Jäälahing Ledus kauja also known as the Battle of Lake Peipus With or without the Pope's blessing, Sweden also undertook several crusades against Orthodox Novgorod.
Other crusades
Crusade against the Tatars
In 1259 Mongols led by Burundai and Nogai Khan ravaged the principality of Halych-Volynia, Lithuania and Poland. Burundai or Buruldai (d1282 was a notable Mongol general of the mid XIII century. Nogai Khan (died 1299 also called Kara Nogai (Black Nogai was a General and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-grandson of Genghis The Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia ( Ruthenian: sla Галицко-Волинскоє Королѣвство Regnum Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ or Galicia-Vladimir, was Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland After that Pope Alexander IV tried without success to create a crusade against the Blue Horde. Pope Alexander IV (1199 or ca 1185 &ndash May 25 1261) was Pope from 1254 until his death The Blue Horde (Көк Орда/Kök Orda Күк Урда/Kük Urda, Turkish: Gök Ordu/Orda) was one of the uluses within the Mongol Empire
In the 14th century, Khan Tokhtamysh combined the Blue and White Hordes forming the Golden Horde. Tokhtamysh (d ca 1406 was the last khan of the White Horde, who unified the White Horde and Blue Horde subdivisions of the Golden Horde into This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. It seemed that the power of the Golden Horde had begun to rise, but in 1389, Tokhtamysh made the disastrous decision of waging war on his former master, the great Tamerlane. Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Tamerlane's hordes rampaged through southern Russia, crippling the Golden Horde's economy and practically wiping out its defenses in those lands. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending
After losing the war, Tokhtamysh was then dethroned by the party of Khan Temur Kutlugh and Emir Edigu, supported by Tamerlane. When Tokhtamysh asked Vytautas the Great for assistance in retaking the Horde, the latter readily gathered a huge army which included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Russians, Mongols, Moldavians, Poles, Romanians and Teutonic Knights. Vytautas the Great ( Lithuanian:; Vitaŭt; Latin: Alexander Vitoldus; Witold Ruthenian: Vitovt; c Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order.
In 1398, the huge army moved from Moldavia and conquered the southern steppe all the way to the Dnieper River and northern Crimea. For the rocket see Dnepr rocket. For other uses see Dnieper (disambiguation. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Inspired by their great successes, Vytautas declared a 'Crusade against the Tatars' with Papal backing. Pope Boniface IX (1356 &ndash October 1, 1404) born Piero Tomacelli, was the second Roman Pope of the Western Schism from November Thus, in 1399, the army of Vytautas once again moved on the Horde. His army met the Horde's at the Vorskla River, slightly inside Lithuanian territory. The Vorskla River (Ворскла located in Russia and northeastern Ukraine, is tributary to the Dnieper.
Although the Lithuanian army was well equipped with cannon, it could not resist a rear attack from Edigu's reserve units. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural Vytautas hardly escaped alive. Many princes of his kin—possibly as many as 20—were killed (for example, Stefan Musat, Prince of Moldavia and two of his brothers, while a fourth was badly injured), and the victorious Tatars besieged Kiev. Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the "And the Christian blood flowed like water, up to the Kievan walls," as one chronicler put it. Meanwhile, Temur Kutlugh died from the wounds received in the battle, and Tokhtamysh was killed by one of his own men.
Crusades in the Balkans
To counter the expanding Ottoman Empire, several crusades were launched in the 15th century. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The most notable are:
- the Crusade of Nicopolis (1396) organized by Sigismund of Luxemburg king of Hungary culminated in the Battle of Nicopolis
- the Crusade of Varna (1444) led by the Polish-Hungarian king Władysław Warneńczyk ended in the Battle of Varna
- and the Crusade of 1456 organized to lift the Siege of Belgrade led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano
Aragonese Crusade
The Aragonese Crusade, or Crusade of Aragón, was declared by Pope Martin IV against the King of Aragón, Peter III the Great, in 1284 and 1285. For other nobles of the same name please see Sigismund. Sigismund ( February 14, 1368 – December 9, The Crusade of Varna was a string of events in 1443&ndash44 between the Kingdom of Hungary, the Serbian Despotate, and the Ottoman Empire. This article refers to the 15th century Jagiellon monarch For the 12th century Piast monarch see Władysław III Spindleshanks, and for other monarchs with similar The Battle of Varna took place on November 10, 1444 near Varna in eastern Bulgaria. The Siege of Belgrade occurred from July 4 to July 22, 1456. After the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman John Hunyadi ( Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus, Hungarian: Hunyadi János, (c Saint Giovanni da Capestrano ( in English, Saint John Capistrano and in Hungarian, János Kapisztrán) June 24 The Aragonese Crusade or Crusade of Aragón, a part of the larger War of the Sicilian Vespers, was declared by Pope Martin IV against the King of Aragón Pope Martin IV (between 1210 and 1220 &ndash March 28, 1285) born Simon de Brion, held the Papacy from February 21, 1281 Peter the Great ( Catalan: Pere el Gran, Spanish: Pedro el Grande; 1239 &ndash 2 November 1285) was the King of Aragon
Alexandrian Crusade
The Alexandrian Crusade of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against Muslim Alexandria led by Peter I of Cyprus. The brief Alexandrian Crusade occurred in October of 1365 and was led by Peter I of Cyprus against Alexandria. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Peter I of Cyprus or Pierre I de Lusignan ( Nicosia, October 9, 1328 &ndash Palace of La Cava, Nicosia, January 17 His motivation was at least as commercial as religious. It had limited success.
Hussite Crusade
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "Hussite Wars," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars, also called the Bohemian Wars involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1420 Jan Hus ( (ˈjan ˈɦus alternative spellings John Hus, Jan Huss, John Huss) (c Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the The Hussite Wars were arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as muskets made a decisive contribution. A musket is a muzzle -loaded Smoothbore Long gun, which is intended to be fired from the shoulder The Taborite faction of the Hussite warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armoured knights helped affect the infantry revolution. The Taborites (Czech Táborité, singular Táborita) were members of a religious community considered heretical by the Catholic Church In the end, it was an inconclusive war.
Swedish Crusades
The Swedish conquest of Finland in the Middle Ages has traditionally been divided into three "crusades": the First Swedish Crusade around 1155 AD, the Second Swedish Crusade about 1249 AD and the Third Swedish Crusade in 1293 AD. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. First Swedish Crusade is a legendary military expedition presumably in the 1150s that has traditionally been seen as the conquest of Finland by Sweden, with pagan Second Swedish Crusade was a semi-historical Swedish military expedition to Finland by Birger jarl in the 13th century The Third Swedish Crusade was a Swedish military expedition to Karelia in 1293 CE on area controlled by Novgorod.
The First Swedish Crusade is purely legendary, and according to most historians today, never took place as described in the legend and did not result in any ties between Finland and Sweden. For the most part, it was made up in the late 13th century to date the Swedish rule in Finland further back in time. No historical record has also survived describing the second one, but it probably did take place and ended up in the concrete conquest of southwestern Finland. The third one was against Novgorod, and is properly documented by both parties of the conflict. Veliky Novgorod (Вели́кий Но́вгород is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia and the administrative center of Novgorod
According to archaeological finds, Finland was largely Christian already before the said crusades. Thus the "crusades" can rather be seen as ordinary expeditions of conquest whose main target was territorial gain. The expeditions were dubbed as actual crusades only in the 19th century by the national-romanticist Swedish and Finnish historians.
Dissent Against the Concept of Crusades
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Elements of the Crusades were criticized by some from the time of their inception in 1095. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The virgin birth of Jesus is a religious Tenet of Christianity and Islam which holds that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era ( AD) to the present Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Jews and Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Slavonic Orthodox Georgian Armenian Apostolic A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus including his divinity humanity and earthly life In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance This is an overview of the History of Christian Theology from the time of Christ to the present Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, defend the faith against objections Christian tradition is a collection of Traditions of practice or belief associated with Christianity. Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus ( c This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. A creed is a statement of Belief — usually Religious belief — or Faith often recited as part of a religious service See also Evangelism, Christianization A Christian mission has been widely defined since the Lausanne Congress of 1974 as that which The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic Prayer is an important theme in Christianity, and there are several different forms of prayer Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation Christianity and other religions appear to share some elements Christian movements are theological, political or philosophical interpretations of Christianity that are not generally represented by a specific church Christian music is music that is written to express either personal or a communal belief regarding Christian life A Liturgy is a set form of ceremony or pattern of worship Christian liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed by a Christian congregation or The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when Christian symbolism is defined as the investing of outward things or actions with an inner meaning the expression of Christian ideas Christian art is Art produced in an attempt to illustrate supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Throughout the History of Christianity, a wide range of Christians and non-Christians alike have offered criticisms of Christianity, the Church, and Christians For example, Roger Bacon felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O "[30] In spite of some criticism, the movement was still widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291. J. Hoeberichts argues that St. Francis of Assisi stood in complete and unique opposition to the theological justification and the violent methods of Christendom in his book Francis and Islam. Historians agree that Francis crossed enemy lines to meet the Sultan of Egypt. Hoeberichts cast doubt on the intentions most Christian historians assign to Francis. From the fall of Acre forward, the Crusades to recover Jerusalem and the Christian East were largely lost. This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian Later, 18th century rationalists judged the Crusaders harshly. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Likewise, some modern historians in the West expressed moral outrage. As recently as the 1950s, Sir Steven Runciman wrote a resounding condemnation:
- "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed. Sir James Cochran Stevenson Runciman CH ( 7 July, 1903 &ndash 1 November, 2000) better known as Sir Steven Runciman, was . . the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God". [30]
Historical perspective
Western and Eastern historiography present variously different views on the crusades, in large part because "crusade" invokes dramatically opposed sets of associations—"crusade" as a valiant struggle for a supreme cause, and "crusade" as a byword for barbarism and aggression. This contrasting view is not recent since Christians have in the past struggled with the tension of military activity and teachings of Christ to "love one's enemies" and to "turn the other cheek". For these reasons, the crusades have been controversial even among contemporaries.
Western sources speak of both heroism, faith and honour (emphasized in chivalric romance), but also of acts of brutality. As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative Orthodox Christian and Islamic chroniclers tell stories of barbarian savagery and brutality, although it was not until 1899 that the first Islamic history of the Crusades was written. Prior to the growth of Arab nationalism in the 20th century, the Crusades were virtually unknown in the Islamic world. [31]
Islamic perspective
General:
In the minds of the Muslims the Crusades were Western invasions motivated by the West’s greed and hatred for Islam, while the Christian West thought they were reclaiming the Holy Land and stopping the spread of Islam. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. For the West these wars were known as the ‘crusades’ which comes from the Latin word for cross. The Muslims, on the other hand, referred to the wars as “Frankish Invasions” using the Arabic word al-ifranj which is the term for French although it was applied to Westerns in general. [32] One of the ironic things about the Crusades is that even though “God may have indeed wished it, there is certainly no evidence that the Christians of Jerusalem did, or that anything extraordinary was occurring to pilgrims there to prompt such a response at that moment in history. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the ”[33]
Results of the Crusades on the Islamic World:
The Crusades have made a lasting impact on the Islamic world, especially in their perception of the West and of Christians. In fact even today Muslims still consider the Crusades to be a symbol of Western hostility toward Islam. [34] The Muslims were horrified by the brutality of the Franks and how they so willingly massacred civilians and broke promises. It did not help that the Crusaders felt little to no remorse for what they did and when the Muslims compared that to Saladin’s reputation of being a man of honor they thought even less of the Franks. [35]The fact that the Franks were motivated more by politics and greed than true religious reason has led Muslims to feel that when Europe began to colonize the East it was merely a continuation of the Crusades. This view caused the Muslims to set up intellectual barriers and become very isolationist in their policies causing them to be left behind in the world scene. [36] Now extremists of both the Christian and Islamic faith believe that confrontation is inevitable and because of this view the Crusades remain in focus keeping them in an active albeit violent role in contemporary politics. [37]
Eastern Orthodoxy
Like Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by "the barbarian West", but centered on the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Among vast quantities of gold, which was accumulated for more than 1300 years by the Roman Empire, many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still to be found in the West, in the Vatican and elsewhere, like the Greek Horses on the façade of St. Mark's in Venice. Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory The Triumphal Quadriga or Horses of Saint Mark is a set of Roman or Greek Bronze statues of four Horses originally Saint Mark's Basilica ( Italian: Basilica di San Marco a Venezia) the Cathedral of Venice, is the most famous of Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Both the cultural and the economic capital gained after of the sack of Constantinople played a significant part in the rise of the Italian cities that gave birth to renaissance.
Popular reputation in Western Europe
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the "Saracen" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of Saladin; his adversary Richard the Lionheart is, in the English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while Frederick Barbarossa and Louis IX fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the Chanson d'Antioche was a chanson de geste dealing with the First Crusade, and the Song of Roland, dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized Charlemagne, was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic Basque opponents with Muslims. The Chanson d'Antioche is a Chanson de geste in 9000 lines of Alexandrines in stanzas called Laisses ' now known in a version The chansons de geste, Old French for "songs of Heroic deeds lineages" are the epic poems that appear at the dawn of French literature The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland is the oldest remaining major work of French literature. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Basques (Euskaldunak are a people who inhabit a region spanning over parts of north-central Spain and southwestern France. A popular theme for troubadours was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east. A troubadour ( IPA:, originally) was a composer and performer of Occitan Lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100&ndash1350
In the 14th century, Godfrey of Bouillon was united with the Trojan War and the adventures of Alexander the Great against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the Nine Worthies who stood as popular secular culture heroes into the 16th century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to Torquato Tasso and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned Godfrey of Bouillon (c 1060 Boulogne-sur-Mer &ndash 18 July 1100, Jerusalem) was a medieval knight who was a leader of the First In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Nine Worthies ( les neuf preux) were nine historical scriptural mythological or semi-legendary figures who in The Middle Ages, were believed to personify the A culture hero is a Mythological Hero specific to some group ( cultural, ethnic, racial, religious, etc Torquato Tasso ( 11 March 1544 &ndash 25 April 1595) was an Italian Poet of the 16th century best known for his poem Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir Walter Scott in the early 19th century. Sir Walter Scott 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 &ndash 21 September 1832 was a prolific Scottish Historical novelist and Poet popular throughout Crusading imagery could be found even in the Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim Ottoman Empire, and in World War I, especially Allenby's capture of Jerusalem in 1917. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby 1st Viscount Allenby GCB GCMG GCVO ( April 23 1861 - May 14 1936
In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the Reconquista. El Cid is the central figure. Rodrigo (or Ruy) Díaz de Vivar (c 1040 Vivar, near Burgos &ndash 10 July 1099, Valencia) known as
Role of women
While traditional historiography conceptualizes the crusades as a masculine movement symbolic of honour and male courage, women were also involved.
Women at home were intricately connected whether aware of it or not in the recruitment of crusading men. Their encouragement and familial ties would present men friendly connections which made the prospect of taking the cross more appealing for those risking their lives. Arguably the most significant role that women played in the West during the crusades was their preservation of the home. The best known example is of Adela of Blois, wife of Stephen of Blois whose correspondence with her husband while he was on Crusade and she was at home managing his fief has survived in part. also Adelaide of Normandy sister of William I of England. Adela of Normandy also known as Adela of Blois and Adela of Stephen II Henry (c 1045 &ndash 19 May 1102) (in French, Étienne Henri) Count of Blois and Count of Chartres, It appears she was rather more keen on his crusading than he was. Men could journey to The Holy Land without having to worry about their home because their wives were in charge of their estates and families. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש [38]
Even though most women showed their support for the crusades at home, some women took the cross themselves to go on the crusade. Aristocratic women who joined the movement often found that they had new positions of authority they did not have in the West. Eleanor of Aquitaine, the wealthy queen of France and the wife of king Louis VII, took the cross from St. Bernard of Clairvaux on Easter Sunday 1145 to join her husband. For other Eleanors of England see Eleanor of England (disambiguation Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine (1122&ndash1 April 1204 Louis VII may refer to Louis VII of France "the Younger" (1120–1180 Bernard of Clairvaux, OCist ( 1090 - August 20, 1153) was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order [39] Another woman who had ultimate political power in the East was Melisende of Jerusalem, who under law gained hereditary rights to the crown upon her husband’s death. Melisende of Jerusalem (1105 &ndash September 11, 1161) was Queen of Jerusalem from 1131 to 1153 Like Eleanor, Melisende never led troops into battle, but she did participate in acts of political diplomacy. Less successful was her granddaughter Sibylla of Jerusalem, whose choice of husband had been a crucial political issue since her childhood. Sibylla of Jerusalem (c 1160 &ndash 1190 was the Countess of Jaffa and Ascalon from 1176 and Queen of Jerusalem from 1186 to 1190 Her second marriage to Guy of Lusignan made him the king-consort on the death of Baldwin IV, with disastrous results. Guy of Lusignan, Guy of Jerusalem or Guy of Cyprus (c 1150 or 1159/1160 &ndash Nicosia, July 18, 1194) was a French King consort is a title given in some Monarchies to the husband of a Queen regnant. Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (1161&ndash 16 March 1185) called the Leper or the Leprous, the son of Amalric I of Jerusalem and his first While most women were there to help and care for the crusading men by bringing them water or raising their spirits by offering emotional support, there were women who had specific tasks which defined their feminine characteristics like the washerwoman. [40]
The permanent residents of the Crusader kingdoms, if born in Europe, had usually come unmarried. Very many married women from Apulia in Southern Italy, where living conditions were often harsh, encouraged young women to take ship for Palestine in the knowledge that many men there were looking for wives. Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea
The most controversial role that women had in the crusades was of course the role which threatened their femininity, actual militancy. When analyzing the primary documentation of female militancy, one must be cautious. The accounts of women fighting come mostly from Muslim historians whose aim was to portray Christian women as barbaric and ungodly because of their acts of killing. The contrasting view from Christian accounts portray women fighting only in emergency situations for the preservation of the camps and their own lives. In these cases women are seen as more feminine while behaving like ‘proper women’. [41] Virtually all crusade writings came from men, and women would have been interpreted subjectively no matter what roles they played.
Legacy
Europe and the West
Until recently, the crusades were remembered favourably in western Europe (countries which were, at the time of the Crusades, Roman Catholic countries), and in countries largely settled by Western Europeans, including the United States. Nonetheless, there have been many vocal critics of the Crusades in Western Europe since the Renaissance, and in recent years, critical views of the crusades have come to dominate most assessments. [30]
Defenders of the Crusades now present their viewpoint as that of an embattled minority [2] as against a standard view in which the Crusades are regarded as bloody and unjustified acts of aggression. More comprehensive treatments seek to take account of both the brutality of the Crusades and the sincere religious motivation behind them, of "religious devotion and godly savagery"[3].
A crucial recent development is the recognition, variously interpreted, of the parallel between crusades and the Islamic concept of jihad [4]. Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Secular critics of the crusades see both jihad and crusade as providing a religious justification for war and intolerance. Supporters present the crusades as defensive responses to Islamic jihad and, in some cases, advocate a renewal of the crusades [5] a view that may be linked, by both critics and supporters, to current US policy in the Middle East[6].
Politics and culture
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle Ages. At times, much of the continent was united under a powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century, the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern nation-state) was well on its way in France, England, Burgundy, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Crown of Castile, as a historic entity is usually considered to have begun in 1230 with the third and definitive union of the two kingdoms of León and Castile Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain.
Although Europe had been exposed to Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, much knowledge in areas such as science, medicine, and architecture was transferred from the Islamic to the western world during the crusade era. Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy.
The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European castles became massive stone structures as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past. A castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages.
In addition, the Crusades are seen as having opened up European culture to the world, especially Asia:
| “ | The Crusades brought about results of which the popes had never dreamed, and which were perhaps the most, important of all. They re-established traffic between the East and West, which, after having been suspended for several centuries, was then resumed with even greater energy; they were the means of bringing from the depths of their respective provinces and introducing into the most civilized Asiatic countries Western knights, to whom a new world was thus revealed, and who returned to their native land filled with novel ideas. . . If, indeed, the Christian civilization of Europe has become universal culture, in the highest sense, the glory redounds, in no small measure, to the Crusades. "[3] | ” |
Along with trade, new scientific discoveries and inventions made their way east or west. Arab advances (including the development of algebra, optics, and refinement of engineering) made their way west and sped the course of advancement in European universities that led to the Renaissance in later centuries
The invasions of German crusaders prevented formation of the large Lithuanian state incorporating all Baltic nations and tribes. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Lithuania was destined to become a small country and forced to expand to the East looking for resources to combat the crusaders. [42]
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of Rome saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial This was not only because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but also because many wanted to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש
Increased trade brought many things to Europeans that were once unknown or extremely rare and costly. These goods included a variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, improved glass-manufacturing techniques, early forms of gun powder, oranges, apples, and other Asian crops, and many other products.
The achievement of preserving Christian Europe must not, however, ignore the eventual fall of the Christian Byzantine Empire, which was mostly caused by Fourth Crusade's extreme aggression against Eastern Orthodox Christianity, largely at the instigation of the infamous Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice and financial backer of the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Enrico Dandolo (also Anglicised Henry Dandolo or in Latin Henricus Dandulus, 1107? &ndash June 21 1205) was the Doge The Doge ( Venetian language, also Doxe, derived from Latin Dux military leader duke cf The Byzantine lands had been a stable Christian state since the 4th century, though had been in a crisis immediately before the Fourth Crusade. [22] After the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, the Byzantines never again had as large or strong a state and finally fell in 1453. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS
Taking into account the fall of the Byzantines, the Crusades could be portrayed as the defense of Roman Catholicism against the violent expansion of Islam, rather than the defense of Christianity as a whole against Islamic expansion. On the other hand, the Fourth Crusade could be presented as an anomaly, though this does not explain the Northern Crusades which also targeted Orthodox Christians. The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Crusades undertaken by the Catholic kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian It is also possible to find a compromise between these two points of view, specifically that the Crusades were Roman Catholic campaigns which primarily sought to fight Islam to preserve Catholicism, and secondarily sought to thereby protect the rest of Christianity; in this context, the Fourth Crusade's crusaders could have felt compelled to abandon the secondary aim in order to retain Dandolo's logistical support in achieving the primary aim. Even so, the Fourth Crusade was condemned by the Pope of the time (Pope Innocent III) and is now generally remembered throughout Europe as a disgraceful failure. Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January
From a larger perspective, and certainly from that of noted naval/maritime historian Archibald Lewis, the Crusades must be viewed as part of a massive macrohistorical event during which Western Europe, primarily by its ability in naval warfare, amphibious siege, and maritime trade, was able to advance in all spheres of civilization. [22] Recovering from the Dark Ages of AD 700-1000, throughout the 11th century Western Europe began to push the boundaries of its civilization. This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe [22] Prior to the First Crusade the Italian city-state of Venice, along with the Byzantine Empire, had cleared the Adriatic Sea of Islamic pirates, and loosened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean Sea (Byzantine-Muslim War of 1030-1035). The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the [22] The Normans, with the assistance of the Italian city-states of Genoa and Pisa, had retaken Sicily from the Muslims from 1061-1091. The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English Pisa is a city in Tuscany, central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the Arno River on the Ligurian Sea. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. [22] These conflicts prior to the First Crusade had both retaken Western European territory and weakened the Islamic hold on the Mediterranean, allowing for the rise of Western European Mediterranean trading and naval powers such as the Sicilian Normans and the Italian city-states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing [22]
During the Middle Ages, the key trading region of the Earth was the Black Sea-Mediterranean Sea-Red Sea. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. [22] It was the aforementioned pre-First Crusade actions, along with the Crusades themselves, which allowed Western Europe to control the trade of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea, a control which began in the 1000s and would only be threatened by the Turkish Ottoman Empire beginning in the mid-to-late 1400s. [22] This Western European control of vital sea lanes allowed the economy of Western Europe to advance to previously unknown degrees, most obviously as regards the Maritime Republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa. [22] Indeed, it is no coincidence that the Renaissance began in Italy, as the Maritime Republics, through their control of the Eastern Mediterranean and Black Seas, were able to return to Italy the ancient knowledge of the Greeks and Romans, as well as the products of distant East Asia. [22]
Combined with the Mongol Empire, Western Europe traded extensively with East Asia, the security of the Mongol Empire allowing the products of Asia to be brought to such Western European controlled ports as Acre, Antioch, Kaffa (on the Black Sea) and even, for a time, Constantinople itself. The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also [22] The Fifth Crusade of 1217-1221 and the Seventh Crusade of 1248-1254 were largely attempts to secure Western European control of the Red Sea trade region, as both Crusades were directed against Egypt, the power base of the Ayyubid, and then Mameluke, Sultanates. The Fifth Crusade ( 1217 &ndash 1221) was an attempt to take back Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering the powerful The Seventh Crusade was a Crusade led by Louis IX of France from 1248 to 1254. The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings [22] It was only in the 1300s, as the stability of trade with Asia collapsed with the Mongol Empire, the Mamelukes destroyed the Middle Eastern Crusader States, and the rising Ottoman Empire impeded further Western European trade with Asia, that Western Europeans sought alternate trade routes to Asia, ultimately leading to Columbus's voyage of 1492. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish COLUMBUS is a Computational chemistry software suite for calculating ab initio molecular electronic structures designed as a collection of individual programs communicating [22]
Islamic world
The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. The Muslims tended to use the word "Frank" to describe all Western Europeans, regardless of nationality. [43]
Muslims traditionally celebrate Saladin as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the Arab independence movement and Pan-Islamism movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a "crusade". Pan-Islamism ( اتّحاد الاسلام) is a Political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state or a Caliphate The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.
The most devastating long term consequence of the crusades, according to historian Peter Mansfield, was the creation of an Islamic mentality that sought a retreat into isolation. Peter Mansfield was born in 1928 in Ranchi, India, and was educated at Winchester and Cambridge He says "Assaulted from all quarters, the Muslim world turned in on itself. It became oversensitive [and] defensive… attitudes that grew steadily worse as world-wide evolution, a process from which the Muslim world felt excluded, continued. "[44].
Jewish community
Though the Muslims in power at the time tried to protect the Jews in The Holy Land, the Crusaders' atrocities against them in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France, England, and in the massacres of Jews in Palestine and Syria have become a significant part of the history of anti-Semitism, although no Crusade was ever declared against Jews. The history of the Jews and the crusades became a part of the History of anti-Semitism for the Jews in the Middle Ages. The history of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries These attacks left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III and formed the turning-point in medieval anti-Semitism. Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility It must also be noted that Pope Innocent III reiterated papal injunctions against forcible conversions of Jews, and added: "No Christian shall do the Jews any personal injury. . . or deprive them of their possessions. . . or disturb them during the celebration of their festivals. . . or extort money from them by threatening to exhume their dead. "[45].
The crusading period brought with it many narratives from Jewish sources. Among the better-known Jewish narratives are the chronicles of Solomon Bar Simson and Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan, "The Narrative of the Old Persecutions," by Mainz Anonymous, and "Sefer Zekhirah," and "The Book of Remembrance," by Rabbi Ephraim of Bonn. The Mainz Anonymous is an account of the German Crusade of 1096 written soon thereafter by an anonymous Jewish author Ephraim of Bonn was a Jewish writer who documented the massacre of the Jews at the city of York in the year 1190
Caucasus
In the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia, in the remote highland region of Khevsureti, a tribe called the Khevsurs are thought to possibly be direct descendants of a party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have remained in isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. This article is about the terrestrial Eurasian mountain range Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Khevsureti is a historic province in eastern Georgia, located along both the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Mountains. Khevsureti is a historic province in eastern Georgia, located along both the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Mountains. Into the 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities. Russian serviceman and ethnographer Arnold Zisserman who spent 25 years (1842–67) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian highlanders were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other evidence. [46] American traveler Richard Halliburton saw and recorded the customs of the tribe in 1935. Richard Halliburton ( 9 January 1900 – presumed dead after 24 March 1939) was an American Traveler, Adventurer [47]
Etymology and use of the term "crusade"
- For other uses of the term "crusade", see Crusade (disambiguation).
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of Saint Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the French croisade, the Italian crociata, the Portuguese cruzada, or the German Kreuzzug) developed from this. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal.
From the 17th century until the late 20th century, the term "crusade" carried a connotation in the West of being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out evil", or to fight for a just cause. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Evil, in many cultures is used to describe acts or thoughts which are contrary to some particular religion In a non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" came to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning—substantially removed from "armed struggle. "
In a broader sense, "crusade" was used, in a rhetorical and metaphorical sense, to identify as righteous any war that was given a religious or moral justification. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings
A June 2, 1944 message to Allied troops before the Normandy landings, began with General Eisenhower stating, "Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force! You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general " His later bestselling memoir was entitled Crusade in Europe. Crusade in Europe (ISBN 0-801-85668-X is a book by General Dwight D
Ardent activists often referred to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering. " The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the zealotry of agenda promoters, for example with the moniker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade against abortion," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools. "
In recent years, the use of "crusade" as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term, and as critical views of the Crusades have become dominant.
In line with the traditional usage George W. Bush in 2002 described his anti-terrorism campaign as a "crusade" but was compelled to repudiate the term when it was pointed out that the word, because of the historical events to which it referred, was regarded as highly offensive by Muslims and Jews. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States.
See also
- History of the Jews and the Crusades
- Bull of the Crusade
- Religious war
- Jihad
- Medieval demography
- Islamic Golden Age
- List of wars in the Muslim world
- Mongol invasions
- Ottoman wars in Europe
- Reconquista
- Franco-Mongol alliance
- Siege of Antioch (1268)
- Some results of the crusades
- Background to crusades
- Byzantine-Arab Wars
- Muslim conquests
- Islamic conquest of southern Italy
- German Pilgrimage of 1064-1065
- Events named "crusade" but not included in historical crusades
- Media and culture
- Knightly Orders
- Participants
- List of principal Crusaders
- Hashshashin
- Frisian participation in the Crusades
- Famous Opponents
Notes
- ^ a b c Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The history of the Jews and the crusades became a part of the History of anti-Semitism for the Jews in the Middle Ages. A Bull of the Crusade (Bula de la Cruzada was a Papal bull which granted Indulgences to those who took part in the Crusades against Muslims A religious war is a War caused by religious differences It can involve one state with an established religion against another state with a different religion or a different Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. Part of the List of wars series Battles of the Rashidun Caliphate Ridda wars Battle of Yamama 632 The Mongol Empire emerged in the course of the 13th century by a series of conquests and invasions throughout Central and Western Asia, reaching Eastern Europe The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older European The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. The "Siege of Antioch" may also refer to two battles in 1097 and 1098 during the First Crusade; see Siege of Antioch. The Crusader states were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal states created by Western European Crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and This is a list of Castles in the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, founded or occupied during the Crusades. The Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon was a communication written by six elders of the Karaite Jewish community of Ascalon and sent to their coreligionists in The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general The Shepherds' Crusade refers to separate events from the 13th and 14th century. The Hussite Wars, also called the Bohemian Wars involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1420 The Tenth Crusade is a Rhetorical device that builds an analogy between the U The art of the crusades, meaning primarily the art produced in Middle Eastern areas under Crusader control encompassed roughly two artistic periods in Europe, the The Crusade cycle is an Old French cycle of Chansons de geste concerning the First Crusade and its aftermath Kingdom of Heaven is a 2005 Epic film, directed by Ridley Scott and written by William Monahan. military order is a Christian Order of knighthood that is founded for crusading, i The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. This is a list of the principal leaders of the Crusades, classified by Crusade The Hashshashin (also Hashishin, Hashashiyyin, Hashasheen or Assassins) were an offshoot of the Ismā'īlī sect of Shia Frisian participation in the Crusades is attested from the very beginning of the First Crusade, but there presence is only felt substantially during the Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c Baibars, or al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic ar الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري al-Malik al-Ashraf Salāh al-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn ( الملك الأشرف صلاح الدين خليل بن قلاوون (b The Oxford History of the Crusades New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192853643.
- ^ such as Muslim territories in Al Andalus, Ifriqiya, and Egypt, as well as in Eastern Europe
- ^ a b c Crusades in The New Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, Vol. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or In medieval history, Ifriqiya or Ifriqiyah (إفريقية was the area comprising the coastal regions of what are today western Libya, Tunisia This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. IV, p. 508. [1]
- ^ e. g. the Albigensian Crusade, the Aragonese Crusade, the Reconquista and the Northern Crusades. The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209&ndash1229 was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar The Aragonese Crusade or Crusade of Aragón, a part of the larger War of the Sicilian Vespers, was declared by Pope Martin IV against the King of Aragón The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Crusades undertaken by the Catholic kings of Denmark and Sweden, the German Livonian
- ^ Halsall, Paul (December 1997). Philip de Novare: Les Gestes des Ciprois, The Crusade of Frederick II, 1228-29. Medieval Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved on 2008-02-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. —"Gregory IX had in fact excommunicated Frederick before he left Sicily the second time"
- ^ The Gospel in All Lands By Methodist Episcopal Church Missionary Society, Missionary Society, Methodist Episcopal Church, pg. 262
- ^ Denys Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" in The Oxford History of the Crusades ed. Jonathan Riley-Smith (New York:Oxford University Press,1999) 157
- ^ Madden, p. 5
- ^ Madden, p. 8
- ^ East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E.
- ^ However, Chinese scholar Yang Xianyi states it was Melissenos Kaisar, brother-in-law of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Nikephoros Melissenos or Nicephorus Melissenus was one of many eleventh-century Byzantine generals who tried to take the throne Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118
- ^ (Chinese) Fundamental Historical Research by Yang Xianyi
- ^
"Crusades" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. - ^ Fulcher of Chartres, Medieval Sourcebook.
- ^ Tuchman, Barbara. Barbara Wertheim Tuchman ( January 30, 1912 &ndash February 6, 1989) was an American self-trained Historian and author A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century. Alfred A. Knopf; Reissue edition. (August 1978) 279. ISBN-10: 0394400267.
- ^ a b Arab Historians of the Crusades, trans. F. Gabrieli, trans. E. J. Costello. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984.
- ^ Trumpbour, John. “Crusades. ” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ "Les Croisades, origines et consequences", p. 62, Claude Lebedel, ISBN 2737341361
- ^ The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, Extracted and translated from the chronicle of Ibn Al-Qalanisi, translated by H. A. R. Gibb (London: Luzac & Co. , 1932).
- ^ Trumpbour, John. “Crusades. ” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ “Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Lewis, Archibald (January 1988). Nomads and Crusaders: AD 1000-1368. . Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253206527.
- ^ Hallam, Elizabeth. Chronicles of the Crusades: Eye-Witness Accounts of the wars Between Christianity and Islam. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989. pp 155-155.
- ^ Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press: New York, 2005. pg. 59.
- ^ Lamb, Harold. The Crusades: The Flame of Islam, Double Day and Company, Inc. New York. 1931 pg. 310-311.
- ^ “Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ Dore's Illustrations of the Crusades By Gustave Dore, Dore
- ^ Hetoum II (1289‑1297)
- ^ Third Crusade: Siege of Acre
- ^ a b c Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Atlas of the Crusades New York: Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0-8160-2186-4.
- ^ Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes.
- ^ Trumpbour, John. “Crusades. ” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ Peters, “Early Muslim Empires,” pg 85. Qtd in Islam: The Straight Path. John L. Esposito. Oxford University Press: New York, 2005. Pg. 58.
- ^ “Crusades” In The Islamic World: past and Present. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ Trumpbour, John. “Crusades. ” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ Murphy, Thomas Patrick. The Holy War. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1976. pg. 198.
- ^ Trumpbour, John. “Crusades. ” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. , edited by John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article (accessed Feb 17, 2008).
- ^ Jonathan Riley-Smith. The First Crusaders 1096–1131, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 1997, 99.
- ^ Roy Douglas Davis Owen. Eleanor of Aquitaine : queen and legend, Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell Publishing 1993, 22.
- ^ Susan B. Edington and Sarah Lambert ed. Gendering the Crusades, New York: Columbia University Press 2002, 98.
- ^ Helen Nicholson. “Women on the Third Crusade. Journal of Medieval History (23) no. 4 (1997) pp. 337. ”
- ^ (Lithuanian) Tomas Baranauskas. Prūsų sukilimas—prarasta galimybė sukurti kitokią Lietuvą (Prussian rebellion—the lost chance of creating different Lithuania). 20 September, 2006
- ^ Atwood, p. 583
- ^ A History of the Middle East, Second Edition, London: Penguin Books, 2003, p 21.
- ^ Innocent III: Letter on the Jews 1199, Internet Medieval Source Book, Fordham University, 1996, Retrieved on 2006-11-27.
- ^ Images from the Georgia–Chechnya Border, 1970–1980, Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology.
- ^ Sword and Buckler Fighting among the Lost Crusaders. Excerpts of Halliburton's observations
References
- Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.
External links
- E. L. Skip Knox, The Crusades, a virtual college course through Boise State University. Boise State University is a Public university located near downtown Boise, the Capital city of the U
- Paul Crawford, Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources, 1999.
- Thomas F. Madden, The Real History of the Crusades, an essay by a Crusades historian
- The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East—an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
- De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History—contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades
- Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades The Jewish History Resource Center - Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- The Crusades Encyclopedia - articles, primary and secondary sources, and bibliographies
- An Islamic View of the Battlefieldan article that provides indepth analysis of the theological basis of human wars
- A History of the Crusades
- The Crusades Wiki
This article is about the modern historian at Saint Louis University The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים الجامعة العبرية في القدس abbreviated HUJI) is
Dictionary
crusades
-noun
- Plural form of crusade.
-verb
- Third-person singular simple present indicative form of crusade.
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