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Crimean War

Detail of Franz Roubaud's panoramic painting The Siege of Sevastopol (1904). Franz Alekseyevich Roubaud was a Russian painter who created some of the largest and best known Panoramic paintings Roubaud was born on 15 June Panoramic paintings are massive artworks that reveal a wide all-encompassing View of a particular subject often a Landscape, military battle or historical
Date 1853–1856
Location Crimean Peninsula,
Balkans,
Black Sea,
Baltic Sea,
Pacific Ocean
Result Allied victory, Treaty of Paris
Belligerents
Allies:
Flag of France French Empire
Ottoman flag Ottoman Empire
Flag of the United Kingdom British Empire
Flag of Italy Kingdom of Sardinia		 Russian Empire
Flag of Bulgaria Bulgarian volunteers
Strength
300,000 Turks
400,000 French
250,000 British
18,000 Sardinian		 700,000[1] Russians
4,000 Bulgarians
Casualties and losses
252,000 total dead, of which 70,000 battle casualties[2]
French: total dead ca 100,000[3]
of which 10,240 killed in action; 20,000 died of wounds; ca 75,000 died of disease
British: 2,755 killed in action; 2,019 died of wounds; 16,323 died of disease
Sardinians: 2,050 died from all causes[4]
Turks total dead and wounded 200,000 est. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The Treaty of Paris of 1856 settled the Crimean War between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, France The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 Kingdom of Sardinia, also known as Piedmont-Sardinia or Sardinia-Piedmont, was the name given to the possessions of the House of Savoy in 1720 when the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Bulgarian Legion (Българска легия Balgarska legiya) was the name of two military bands formed by Bulgarian volunteers and revolutionary workers in [5]
total dead est. 50,000[6]		 ca 522,000[7] [8] killed, wounded and died of disease [9]
of which dead 60,000[10] to 110,000[11][12]

The Crimean War (October 1853–February 1856) was fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 Kingdom of Sardinia, also known as Piedmont-Sardinia or Sardinia-Piedmont, was the name given to the possessions of the House of Savoy in 1720 when the The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, with additional actions occurring in western Turkey, and the Baltic Sea region. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude.

The Crimean War is sometimes considered to be the first "modern" conflict and "introduced technical changes which affected the future course of warfare. "[13]

Contents

Build-up to war

Conflict over the Holy Land

The chain of events leading to Britain and France declaring war on Russia on 28 March 1854 can be traced to the 1851 coup d'état in France. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Year 1854 ( MDCCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Napoleon III had his ambassador to the Ottoman Empire force the Ottomans to recognize France as the "sovereign authority" in the Holy Land. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש [14]

Quickly, the Russians made counterclaims to this newest change in "authority" in the Holy Land. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the other in 1774, the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Napoleon III responded with a show of force, sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea, a violation of the London Straits Convention. A ship-of-the-line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th century through the mid-19th century to take part in the the naval tactic known as the Line of battle The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey In the London Straits Convention concluded on July 13th 1841 between the Great Powers of Europe at the time - Russia, the [14] France's show of force, combined with aggressive diplomacy and money, induced Sultan Abdülmecid I to accept a new treaty, confirming France and the Roman Catholic Church as the supreme Christian authority in the Holy Land with control over the Christian holy places and possession of the keys to the Church of the Nativity, previously held by the Greek Orthodox Church. Abdülmecid I ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد المجيد اول ‘Abdü’l-Mecīd-i evvel) ( April 23 1823 June 25 1861 Church_of_the_nativity_bethjpg|thumb|200px|View of The Church of the Nativity from Manger Square]]The Church of the Nativity ( كنيسة المهد) in Bethlehem The Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem ( Greek: Patriarcheîon Hierosolýmōn, Arabic كنيسة الروم الأرثوذكس في القدس [15]

Tsar Nicholas I then deployed his 4th and 5th Army Corps along the River Danube, and had Count Karl Nesselrode, his foreign minister, undertake talks with the Ottomans. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin Baltic-German Count Karl Robert Nesselrode ( December 14, 1780 - March 23, 1862) was a Russian diplomat and a leading Nesselrode confided to the British ambassador in St Petersburg, Sir Hamilton Seymour:

[The dispute over the holy places] had assumed a new character - that the acts of injustice towards the Greek church which it had been desired to prevent had been perpetrated and consequently that now the object must be to find a remedy for these wrongs. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River The success of French negotiations at Constantinople was to be ascribed solely to intrigue and violence - violence which had been supposed to be the ultima ratio of kings, being, it had been seen, the means which the present ruler of France was in the habit of employing in the first instance. [16]

As conflict loomed over the question of the holy places, Nicholas I and Nesselrode began a diplomatic offensive which they hoped would prevent either Britain or France from interfering in any conflict between Russia and the Ottomans, as well as to prevent them from allying together.

Cornet Henry Wilkin, 11th Hussars, British Army. Photo by Roger Fenton
Cornet Henry Wilkin, 11th Hussars, British Army. Cornet was originally the third and lowest grade of Commissioned officer in a British Cavalry Troop, after Captain and Lieutenant Photo by Roger Fenton

Nicholas began courting Britain through Seymour. Roger Fenton ( March 20, 1819 - August 8, 1869) was a pioneering British photographer, one of the first war photographers Nicholas insisted that he no longer wished to expand Imperial Russia further, but that he had an obligation to Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire.

The Tsar next dispatched a diplomat, Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Porte. Prince Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menshikov ( Александр Сергеевич Меншиков in Russian) ( August 26 1787 — Ottoman Porte (also Sublime Porte, High Porte, or in Ottoman Turkish, Bab-ı Ali) used to refer to the Divan (court By previous treaties, the Sultan was committed "to protect the Christian religion and its churches", but Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate. Further, this new synod, a religious convention, would allow Russia to control the Orthodox Church's hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire. A synod (also known as a council) is a council of a church, usually a Christian church convened to decide an issue of doctrine administration or application Menshikov arrived at Constantinople on 16 February on the steam-powered warship Gromovnik. Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Menshikov broke protocol at the Porte when, at his first meeting with the Sultan, he condemned the Ottoman's concessions to the French. Menshikov also began demanding the replacement of highly-placed Ottoman civil servants.

The British embassy at Constantinople at the time was being run by Hugh Rose, chargé d'affaires for the British. Field Marshal Hugh Henry Rose 1st Baron Strathnairn, GCB. GCSI, ( April 6, 1801 &ndash October 16, 1885) was In diplomacy chargé d’affaires ( French for “charged with (in charge of matters” is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic Using his considerable resources within the Ottoman Empire, Rose gathered intelligence on Russian troop movements along the Danube frontier, and became concerned about the extent of Menshikov's mission to the Porte. Rose, using his authority as the British representative to the Ottomans, ordered a British squadron of warships to depart early for an eastern Mediterranean cruise and head for Constantinople. However, Rose's actions were not backed up by the British admiral in command of the squadron, Whitley Dundas, who resented the diplomat for believing he could interfere in the Admiralty's business. Sir James Whitley Deans Dundas GCB ( 4 December 1785 &ndash 3 October 1862) was a British admiral and a First Sea Lord. The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. Within a week, Rose's actions were cancelled. Only the French sent a naval task force to support the Ottomans.

First hostilities

Battle of Sinope, by Ivan Aivazovsky
Battle of Sinope, by Ivan Aivazovsky

At the same time, however, the British government of Prime Minister Aberdeen sent Lord Stratford. The naval Battle of Sinop (or Sinope) took place on 30 November 1853 at Sinop, a Sea port in northern Turkey, when Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (Иван Константинович Айвазовский Հովհաննես Այվազովսկի - Hovhannes Aivazovsky July 29, George Hamilton-Gordon 4th Earl of Aberdeen KG KT FRS PC (28 January 1784&ndash14 December 1860 styled Lord Haddo from 1791 Stratford Canning 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe KG GCB PC ( 4 November 1786 - 14 August 1880) was a Through skilful diplomacy, Lord Stratford convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty, which compromised the independence of the Turks. Benjamin Disraeli blamed Aberdeen and Stratford's actions for making war inevitable, thus starting the process by which Aberdeen would be forced to resign for his role in starting the war. Benjamin Disraeli 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS (born Benjamin D'Israeli; 21 December 1804 &ndash 19 April 1881 was Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, the Tsar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities along the Danube in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext. Moldavia (Moldova is a geographic and historical region and former Principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between Eastern Carpathians This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Nicholas believed that the European powers, especially Austria, would not object strongly to the annexation of a few neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especially given Russian involvement in suppressing the Revolutions of 1848. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European

When the Tsar sent his troops into the "Danubian Principalities", Great Britain, seeking to maintain the security of the Ottoman Empire, sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it joined another fleet sent by France. Danubian Principalities (Principatele Dunărene was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which emerged in the See also [[Hellespont]] The Dardanelles ( Turkish: Çanakkale Boğazı Greek: Δαρδανέλλια Dardanellia) formerly At the same time, however, the European powers hoped for a diplomatic compromise. The representatives of the four neutral Great Powers — Great Britain, France, Austria and Prussia — met in Vienna, where they drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to the Russians and Ottomans. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. The note met with the approval of Nicholas I; it was, however, rejected by Abdülmecid, who felt that the document's poor phrasing left it open to many different interpretations. Great Britain, France and Austria were united in proposing amendments to mollify the Sultan, but their suggestions were ignored in the court of St Petersburg.

Great Britain and France set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, but Austria and Prussia did not believe that the rejection of the proposed amendments justified the abandonment of the diplomatic process. The Sultan formally declared war on 4 October 1853 and proceeded to the attack, his armies moving on the Russian army near the Danube later that month. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas Year 1853 ( MDCCCLIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common [17] Nicholas responded by dispatching warships, which destroyed a patrol squadron of Ottoman frigates and corvettes while they were anchored at the port of Sinop in northern Turkey on November 30, 1853. The naval Battle of Sinop (or Sinope) took place on 30 November 1853 at Sinop, a Sea port in northern Turkey, when Sinop ( Greek: Σινώπη /Sinope is a city with a population of 47000 on İnce Burun ( İnceburun, Cape Ince) by its Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 1853 ( MDCCCLIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The destruction of the Turkish ships provided Great Britain and France the casus belli for declaring war against Russia, on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Casus belli is a Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war On 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Great Britain and France formally declared war. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Year 1854 ( MDCCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year [17]

Mahmudiye (1829), ordered by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and built by the Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Istanbul, was for many years the largest warship in the world. The 62x17x7 m ship-of-the-line was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks. She participated in many important naval battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol (1854-1855) during the Crimean War (1854-1856). She was decommissioned in 1875
Mahmudiye (1829), ordered by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and built by the Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Istanbul, was for many years the largest warship in the world. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) ( July 20, 1785 July 1, 1839 The Golden Horn ( Turkish: Haliç or Altın Boynuz, Greek: Χρυσόν Κέρας – Chrysón Kéras is an inlet of the Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The 62x17x7 m ship-of-the-line was armed with 128 cannons on 3 decks. A ship-of-the-line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th century through the mid-19th century to take part in the the naval tactic known as the Line of battle She participated in many important naval battles, including the Siege of Sevastopol (1854-1855) during the Crimean War (1854-1856). She was decommissioned in 1875

Peace attempts

Nicholas felt that because of his services rendered in 1848, Austrians would side with him, or at the very least remain neutral. Austria, however, felt threatened by the Russian troops. When Great Britain and France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the principalities, Austria supported them; and, though it did not immediately declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality.

Though the original grounds for war were lost when Russia withdrew its troops, Great Britain and France continued with hostilities. Determined to address the Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the allies proposed several conditions for a peaceful resolution, including:

  1. Russia was to give up its protectorate over the Danubian Principalities;
  2. It was to abandon any claim granting it the right to interfere in Ottoman affairs on the behalf of the Orthodox Christians;
  3. The Straits Convention of 1841 was to be revised;
  4. All nations were to be granted access to the River Danube. The " Eastern Question " in European history, encompasses the diplomatic and political problems posed by the decay of the Ottoman Empire In the London Straits Convention concluded on July 13th 1841 between the Great Powers of Europe at the time - Russia, the The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj

When the Tsar refused to comply with these Four Points, the Crimean War commenced.

Crimean War

French zouaves and Russian soldiers engaged in hand-to-hand combat at Malakhov Kurgan
French zouaves and Russian soldiers engaged in hand-to-hand combat at Malakhov Kurgan

Siege of Sevastopol

Main article: Siege of Sevastopol (1854)

During the following month, though the immediate cause of war was withdrawn, allied troops landed in the Crimea and besieged the city of Sevastopol, home of the Tsar's Black Sea Fleet and the associated threat of potential Russian penetration into the Mediterranean. Zouave was the title given to certain Infantry regiments in the French Army, normally serving in French North Africa between 1831 and 1962 The Battle of Malakoff, during the Crimean War, was fought between the French and Russian armies on September 7 1855 as a part of the Sevastopol ( see pronunciation below) is a port city in Ukraine, located on the Black Sea coast of the Crimea Peninsula The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey

The Russians had to scuttle their ships, and used the naval cannons as additional artillery and the ships' crews as marines. Scuttling is the act of deliberately sinking a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull. During the siege, the Russians lost four 110- or 120-gun 3-decker ships of the line, twelve 84-gun 2-deckers and four 60-gun frigates in the Black Sea, plus a large number of smaller vessels. A ship-of-the-line was a type of naval warship constructed from the 17th century through the mid-19th century to take part in the the naval tactic known as the Line of battle For the bird see Frigatebird. A frigate /ˈfrɪgɪt/ is a warship Admiral Nakhimov suffered a fatal bullet wound to the head and died on 30 June 1855. Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (Павел Степанович Нахимов June 23, 1802 &ndash June 28, 1855) was one of the most famous Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1855 ( MDCCCLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The city was captured in September 9, 1855, after about a year-long siege.

In the same year, the Russians besieged and occupied the Turkish fortress of Kars (the Battle of Kurekdere had been fought between the two in the same general area the year before). The Siege of Kars was the last major operation of the Crimean War. Kars may refer to Kars Turkey Kars Province, Turkey Kars Oblast, Russian Empire Kars Province The Battle of Kurekdere took place in 1854 as part of the Crimean War.

Baltic theatre

The Baltic was a forgotten theatre of the war. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. The popularisation of events elsewhere has overshadowed the significance of this theatre, which was close to the Russian capital. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River From the beginning, the Baltic campaign turned into a stalemate. The outnumbered Russian Baltic Fleet confined its movements to the areas around fortifications. The Twice Red Banner Baltic Fleet - (Дважды Краснознамённый Балтийский флот was the Imperial later Soviet and is now the Russian Navy's At the same time, British and French commanders Sir Charles Napier and Parseval-Deschènes – although they led the largest fleet assembled since the Napoleonic Wars – considered Russian coastal fortifications, especially the Kronstadt fortress, too well-defended to engage and limited their actions to blockading Russian trade and conducting raids on less fortified sections of the Finnish coast. Admiral Sir Charles (John Napier KCB RN ( 6 March 1786 – 6 November 1860) was a British Naval officer The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Kronstadt (Кроншта́дт also spelled Kronshtadt, Cronstadt (Krone for Crown and Stadt for City) is a Russian The Grand Duchy of Finland (Magnus Ducatus Finlandiæ Великое княжество Финляндское ' Velikoe knjažestvo finljandskoe) was the Predecessor

Bombardment of Bomarsund during the Crimean War
Bombardment of Bomarsund during the Crimean War

Russia was dependent on imports for both the domestic economy and the supply of her military forces and the blockade seriously undermined the Russian economy. Bomarsund is a nineteenth century fortress in Sund on the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea. Raiding by allied British and French fleets destroyed forts on the Finnish coast including Bomarsund on the Åland Islands and Fort Slava. Bomarsund is a nineteenth century fortress in Sund on the Åland Islands in the Baltic Sea. Other such attacks were not so successful, and the poorly planned attempts to take Hanko, Ekenäs, Kokkola and Turku were repulsed. Hanko (ˈhɑŋko in Finnish Hangö in Swedish, and Гангут in Russian) is a Bilingual port town on the south coast Sub-region of Uusimaa (Nyland Ekenäs is also the name of a sub-region of Uusimaa (Nyland in Swedish containing the following municipalities Ekenäs (Tammisaari Kokkola, or Karleby in Swedish, is a town and municipality of Finland. Turku, in Swedish Åbo ( pronounced,) is a city and the original capital of Finland on the southwest coast of Finland at the

The burning of tar warehouses and ships in Oulu and Raahe led to international criticism, and in Britain, MP Thomas Gibson demanded in the House of Commons that the First Lord of the Admiralty explain a system which carried on a great war by plundering and destroying the property of defenceless villagers. Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter Oulu ( (literally "Flood" ( (literally "Ule River Castle" is a city and municipality of about 130000 inhabitants in the province of Raahe ( Brahestad in Swedish) is a town and municipality of Finland. Thomas Milner Gibson ( 3 September 1806 &ndash 25 February 1884) English Politician, who came of a Suffolk The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords In the autumn, a squadron of three British warships led by HMS Miranda left the Baltic for the White Sea, where they shelled Kola (which was utterly destroyed) and the Solovki. HMS Miranda was a Royal Navy sloop which saw action as part of the Allied Squadron in the Crimea War. The White Sea (Бе́лое мо́ре Vienanmeri is an Inlet of the Barents Sea on the northwest coast of Russia. Kola (Ко́ла Guoládat Kuâlõk is a town in Murmansk Oblast, Russia, located at the Confluence of the Kola and Tuloma Their attempt to storm Arkhangelsk proved abortive, as was the siege of Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka. Arkhangelsk (Арха́нгельск formerly called Archangel in English, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast The Siege of Petropavlovsk was the main operation on the Pacific Theatre of the Crimean War. Here, an Anglo-French naval squadron successfully shelled the town but a naval brigade of 800 sailors and marines landed the next day was repulsed.

In 1855, the Western Allied Baltic Fleet tried to destroy heavily defended Russian dockyards at Sveaborg outside Helsinki. Suomenlinna, until 1918 Viapori, ( Finnish) or Sveaborg ( Swedish) is an inhabited sea fortress built on six islands today within Helsinki (in Finnish;) or Helsingfors (in Swedish;) is the Capital and largest city of Finland. More than 1,000 enemy guns tested the strength of the fortress for two days. Despite the shelling, the sailors of the 120-gun ship Rossiya, led by Captain Viktor Poplonsky, defended the entrance to the harbour. The Allies fired over twenty thousand shells but were unable to defeat the Russian batteries. A massive new fleet of more than 350 gunboats and mortar vessels was prepared, but before the attack was launched, the war ended.

"Bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea by the Royal Navy". A lubok (popular print) from 1868
"Bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea by the Royal Navy". Solovetsky Monastery (Соловецкий монастырь was the greatest Citadel of Christianity in the Russian North before being turned into a special The White Sea (Бе́лое мо́ре Vienanmeri is an Inlet of the Barents Sea on the northwest coast of Russia. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) A lubok (popular print) from 1868

Part of the Russian resistance was credited to the deployment of newly created blockade mines. In Russian, Lubok (Cyrillic Лубок) means a variety of Russian Folk art such as prints in Woodcut, characterized by simple Graphics Perhaps the most influential contributor to the development of naval mining was inventor and civil engineer Immanuel Nobel, the father of Alfred Nobel, who is widely recognized for being the inventor of dynamite and a founder of the Nobel Prize. Immanuel helped the war effort for Russia by applying his skilful knowledge of industrial explosives such as nitroglycerin and gunpowder. Modern naval mining is said to date from the Crimean War: "Torpedo mines, if I may use this name given by Fulton to self-acting mines underwater, were among the novelties attempted by the Russians in their defenses about Cronstadt and Sevastopol", as one American officer put it in 1860. A naval mine is a self-contained Explosive device placed in water to destroy Ships or Submarines Unlike Depth charges mines are deposited The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below [18]

Genitchi Strait

The Russians had built a large floating pontoon bridge across the Genitchi Strait, Sea of Azov, to connect the town of Genitchi to the Arabat Spit, and it served as the main supply route to reinforce their troops at Sevastopol. The Sea of Azov (Азо́вское мо́ре - Azovskoye more; Азо́вське мо́ре - Azovs'ke more, Azaq deñizi is the world's shallowest sea linked The Arabat Spit (Арабатська стрілка Арабатская стрелка Arabat beli is a spit (narrow strip of land in the Sea of Azov, which The destruction of the bridge would force the Russians to travel an extra 192 km (120 miles) to deliver supplies, and it therefore became a strategic objective for British forces. Two attacks to cut the floating bridge's hawsers had proved unsuccessful and alerted the Russian garrison. The British made a third attempt on 3 July 1855 using HMS Beagle's four-oared gig, commanded by Gunner John Hayles, and a small paddle-box steamer with one gun, under Midshipman Martin Tracy. The paddle-box steamer moored where the crew could see Russian soldiers marching about on shore and fired the first round in the breech, which drew the gun's securing bolts and made it useless. That left six men in a four-oared boat (including Joseph Trewavas), one rifle, ten rounds of ammunition, and a cutlass apiece to face two hundred enemy on shore behind heaps of coal. Joseph Trewavas VC CGM ( 14 December 1835 - 20 July 1905) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross

The French ironclad floating battery Lave, destroyed Russian batteries at the Battle of Kinburn (1855).
The French ironclad floating battery Lave, destroyed Russian batteries at the Battle of Kinburn (1855). An ironclad was a steam-propelled Warship of the later 19th century protected by Iron or Steel armor plates A floating battery is a kind of armed watercraft often improvised or experimental which carries a heavy armament but has few other qualities as a Warship. The Battle of Kinburn/Kil-Bouroun was a naval engagement during the final stage of the Crimean War.

In Trewavas's own words, "As we paddled out of sight of our ship, on a little mound we could see the Russians motioning the soldiers on shore to keep down and our man in the bow with a loaded rifle wanted to have a 'go' at them but the gunner gave him orders not to do so. I was pulling the bow oar and when we were near the floating bridge, I leapt onto it, cut the hawsers and jumped back in the boat again and shoved off. During this time the Russians, who were only 80 meters off, had not fired a shot, and our man in the bow fired his rifle at them swearing he hit his man. The Russians then let fly. For some time we could not get away as the water was so shallow, and the shot came at us like hailstones, wounding three men and riddling the boat with shot. Reaching safety and the protection of our ship, our boat was sinking and full of water. "

(Trewavas wondered why the Russians had not fired upon the British as they approached the pontoon bridge at Genitchi, but later a Russian officer explained that they had no idea the sailors planned to destroy the bridge, believing rather that they intended to destroy shipping, and therefore held fire with the intention of taking them prisoner. )

Pacific

Minor naval skirmishes also occurred in the Far East, where a strong British and French Allied squadron (including HMS Pique) under Rear Admiral David Price and Contre-admiral Febrier-Despointes besieged a smaller Russian force under Rear Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin at Petropavlovsk on the Kamchatka Peninsula. The Siege of Petropavlovsk was the main operation on the Pacific Theatre of the Crimean War. Yevfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin (Евфи́мий Васи́льевич Путя́тин ( November 8, 1803 &ndash October 16, 1883) An Allied landing force was beaten back with heavy casualties in September 1854, and the Allies withdrew. The Russians escaped under snow in early 1855 after Allied reinforcements arrived in the region.

Italian involvement

With the Italian Unification campaign going on at the time in the Italian states, Camillo di Cavour, under orders by Victor Emmanuel II of the Kingdom of Sardinia, sent troops to side with French and British forces during the war. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso Conte di Cavour, Conte di Isolabella e Leri ( August 10 1810 &ndash June Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy ( Vittorio Emanuele II; March 14, 1820 – January 9, 1878) was the King of Kingdom of Sardinia, also known as Piedmont-Sardinia or Sardinia-Piedmont, was the name given to the possessions of the House of Savoy in 1720 when the This was an attempt at gaining the favour of the French especially when the issue of uniting Italy under the Sardinian throne would become an important matter. The deployment of Italian troops to the Crimea allowed Piedmont to be represented at the peace conference at the end of the war, where it could address the issue of the risorgimento to other European powers. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian

End of the war

Peace negotiations began in 1856 under Nicholas I's son and successor, Alexander II, through the Congress of Paris. Alexander (Aleksandr II Nikolaevich (Александр II Николаевич ( Moscow, 29 April 1818 – 13 March 1881 in St Before the Congress Assembled The Crimean war was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula between Russia on one side and Great Britain France The Ottoman Empire and Furthermore, the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast. The Black Sea clauses came at a tremendous disadvantage to Russia, for it greatly diminished the naval threat it posed to the Turks. Moreover, all the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was crushed by the German states in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. The Treaty of Paris of 1856 settled the Crimean War between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Sardinia, France The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Whilst Prussia and several other German states united to form a powerful German Empire, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, was deposed to permit the formation of a French Republic. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe During his reign (which began in 1852), Napoleon III, eager for the support of Great Britain, had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question. Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not in any significant manner threaten the interests of France. Thus, France abandoned its opposition to Russia after the establishment of a Republic. Encouraged by the decision of the French, and supported by the German minister Otto Fürst von Bismarck, Russia denounced the Black Sea clauses of the treaty agreed to in 1856. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) As Great Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea.

Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war. This led to its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. The Austro-Prussian Soon after, Austria would ally with Prussia as it became the new state of Germany, creating the conditions that would lead to World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

Criticisms and reform

Photograph of the British army camp at Balaklava during the Crimean War. Albumen silver print by "Robertson & Beato", 1855
Photograph of the British army camp at Balaklava during the Crimean War. For the article about the South Australian town see Balaklava South Australia. Albumen silver print by "Robertson & Beato", 1855

The Crimean War was infamously known for military and logistical incompetence. The albumen print, also called albumen silver print, was invented in 1850 by Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard, and was the first commercially exploitable method However, it highlighted the work of women who served as army nurses. War correspondents for newspapers reported the scandalous treatment of wounded soldiers in the desperate winter that followed and prompted the work of Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole, and others and led to the introduction of modern nursing methods. Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (in her own pronunciation ˈflɒɾəns ˈnaɪtɪŋgeɪl 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910 who came to be known as "The Mary Jane Seacole (1858 &ndash 26 May 1889 sometimes known as Mother Seacole or Mary Grant, was a Jamaican born Multiracial British Nurse

The Crimean War also saw the first tactical use of railways and other modern inventions such as the telegraph. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. The Crimean War employed modern military tactics, such as trenches and blind artillery fire. The use of the Minié ball for shot, coupled with the rifling of barrels, greatly increased Allied rifle range and damage. The Minié ball (or minie ball) is a type of muzzle-loading Rifle Bullet named after co-developer Claude-Étienne Minié.

The British Army system of sale of commissions came under great scrutiny during the war, especially in connection with the Battle of Balaclava, which saw the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. The sale of commissions was a common practice in most European armies where wealthy and noble officers purchased their rank. The Battle of Balaclava, fought on 25 October 1854, was a key battle during the Crimean War, fought between the allied forces of the United Kingdom The Charge of the Light Brigade was a disastrous Cavalry charge led by Lord Cardigan during the Battle of Balaclava on 25 October This scrutiny eventually lead to the abolition of the sale of commissions.

The Crimean War was a contributing factor in the Russian abolition of the serfdom in 1861: Alexander II saw the military defeat of the Russian serf army by free troops from Britain and France as proof of the need for emancipation. The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms affected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. [19]

Major events of the war

Crimean War Memorial near Regent Street, St James's Park, London
Crimean War Memorial near Regent Street, St James's Park, London

Prominent military commanders

Chapel in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, commemorating the Siege of Petropavlovsk in 1854
Chapel in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, commemorating the Siege of Petropavlovsk in 1854

Crimean War in fiction

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Военная Энциклопедия, М. Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (in her own pronunciation ˈflɒɾəns ˈnaɪtɪŋgeɪl 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910 who came to be known as "The Mary Jane Seacole (1858 &ndash 26 May 1889 sometimes known as Mother Seacole or Mary Grant, was a Jamaican born Multiracial British Nurse Roger Fenton ( March 20, 1819 - August 8, 1869) was a pioneering British photographer, one of the first war photographers Timothy (estimated 1839 &ndash April 3 / April 4, 2004) was a Mediterranean Spur-thighed Tortoise who was thought to be The Balkans is an area of southeastern Europe situated at a major crossroads between mainland Europe and the Near East. The Crimean War Memorial is located on Waterloo Place at the junction of Lower Regent Street and Pall Mall in London about a quarter of the way from the Crimean War medal may refer to British Crimean War Medal Turkish Crimean War medal The Victoria Cross (VC was awarded to 111 members of the British Armed Forces during the Crimean War (also known as the Russian War that lasted from 1854 History of Queenscliff In 1852 the Lieutenant Governor of Victoria C , Воениздат 1999, т. 4, стр. 315
  2. ^ Dupuy and Dupuy The Encyclopedia of Military History, Macdonald and Jane's, 1970, p. 829
  3. ^ Napoleon III, Pierre Milza, Perrin edition, 2004
  4. ^ John Sweetman, Crimean War, Essential Histories 2, Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1 84176 186 9, p. 89
  5. ^ Военная Энциклопедия, М. , Воениздат 1999, т. 4, стр. 317
  6. ^ Clive Pointing, The Crimean War: The Truth Behind the Myth, Chatto & Windus, London, 2004, ISBN 0 7011 7390 4, p. 344
  7. ^ Военная Энциклопедия, М. , Воениздат 1999, т. 4, стр. 317
  8. ^ The Osprey Companion to Military History, R Cowley and G Parker (eds. ), Osprey Publishing, 1996, ISBN 1 85532 663 9, p. 116
  9. ^ Dupuy and Dupuy The Encyclopedia of Military History, Macdonald and Jane's, 1970, p. 829 gives the following figure for the Russian casualties: 256,000 total, of which 128,000 battle casualties
  10. ^ Royle. The Books "Crimea" and The Great crimean war"
  11. ^ John Sweetman, Crimean War, Essential Histories 2, Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1 84176 186 9, p. 89
  12. ^ Clive Pointing, The Crimean War: The Truth Behind the Myth, Chatto & Windus, London, 2004, ISBN 0 7011 7390 4, p. 344 gives the number of Russian dead as 475,000 which is much too high, probably a result of confusing the number of dead and wounded with the number of dead
  13. ^ Royle. Preface
  14. ^ a b Royle. Pg 19
  15. ^ Royle. Pg 20
  16. ^ Royle. Pg 21
  17. ^ a b (1994) Encyclopædia Britannica: Crimean War.  
  18. ^ Mining in the Crimean War
  19. ^ Moon, David (2001). The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 1762-1907. Harlow, England: Pearson Education, pp 49-55. ISBN 058229486X.  
  20. ^ The Pyramid and the Crimean War

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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