A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable language that originates seemingly as a nativized pidgin. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Nativization refers to the process whereby a Language acquires Native speakers A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade ^[1] This understanding of creole genesis culminated in Hall's^[2] notion of the pidgin-creole life cycle. Robert A Hall CAE served five terms in the Massachusetts State Senate While it is understood that creoles have certain grammatical similarities to each other and, arguably, not languages that they are derived from,^[3] no theory for explaining creole phenomena has been universally accepted. The relationship between pidgins and creoles and their similarities means that the distinction is not clear-cut and the variety of phenomena that arise to create pidgins and creoles are not understood very well. ^[4] Likewise, efforts to articulate grammatical features (or sets of features) that are exclusive to creoles have been unsuccessful thus far.

Contents 1 History of the concept 2 Classification of creoles 2.1 Whose creole? 2.2 Substrate and superstrate 3 Shared features 4 Creole genesis 4.1 Theories focusing on European input 4.2 Theories focusing on non-European input 4.3 Gradualist and developmental hypotheses 4.4 Universalist approaches 5 Recent study 5.1 The creole prototype 5.2 Exceptionalism 6 See also 6.1 Related articles 6.2 Creoles by main parent language 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

History of the concept

The term creole comes from French créole, from Spanish criollo, and from Portuguese crioulo, stemming from the verb criar ('to breed') from the Portuguese, or creare from Latin ('to produce, create'). French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The term was coined in the sixteenth century during the great expansion in European maritime power and trade and the establishment of European colonies in the Americas, Africa, and along the coast of South and Southeast Asia up to the Philippines, China, India, and in Oceania. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

The term "Creole" was originally applied to people born in the colonies to distinguish them from the upper-class European-born immigrants. Originally, therefore, "Creole language" meant the speech of those Creole peoples. For the languages see Creole language. For other meanings see Creole (disambiguation.

As a consequence of colonial European trade patterns, many creole languages are found in the equatorial belt around the world and in areas with access to the oceans, including the Caribbean as well as the north and east coasts of South America, western Africa and in Mauritius. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République The majority of creole languages are based on European languages with substrate elements from Africa, although some creoles (such as Sango) show little to no contact with European languages. In Contact linguistics, a substratum ( lat sub: under + stratum: layer → lower layer) is a Language There is a heated dispute over the extent to which substrate features are significant in the genesis or the description of creole languages. In Contact linguistics, a substratum ( lat sub: under + stratum: layer → lower layer) is a Language ^[5]

According to their external history, four types of creoles have been distinguished: plantation creoles, fort creoles, maroon creoles, and creolized pidgins. ^[6] As to their internal history, there are two preconceived assumptions:

1. Creoles exhibit more internal variability than other languages
2. Creoles are simpler than other languages

Because of the generally low status of the Creole peoples in the eyes of European colonial powers, creole languages have generally been regarded as degenerate, or at best as rudimentary dialects of one of their parent languages. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of This is the reason why "creole" has come to be used in opposition to "language" rather than a qualifier for it. ^[7] Prejudice of this kind was compounded by the inherent instability of the colonial system, leading to the disappearance of creole languages, mainly due to dispersion or assimilation of their speech communities. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they comfort critics of the 19th century neogrammarian "tree model" for the evolution of languages and their law of the regularity of sound change (such as the earliest advocates of the wave model, Johannes Schmidt and Hugo Schuchardt, the forerunners of modern sociolinguistics). The Neogrammarians (also Young Grammarians, German Junggrammatiker) were a German school of linguists, originally at the University of Leipzig In Historical linguistics, the wave model or wave theory ( German Wellentheorie) is a model of language change in which new features of a language Johannes Schmidt ( July 29, 1843 – July 4, 1901) was a German linguist. Hugo Ernst Mario Schuchardt ( 4 February 1842, Gotha ( Thüringen) – 21 april 1927, Graz ( Styria Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of Society, including cultural norms expectations and context on the way Language is used This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the comparative method in historical linguistics and in creolistics. The comparative method (in Comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between Languages It aims to prove Historical linguistics (also called diachronic linguistics) is the study of language change Creolistics, or Creology is the Scientific study of Creole languages and as such is a subfield of Linguistics. Since then, linguists have promulgated the idea that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages and use the term "creole" or "creole language" for any language suspected to have undergone creolization, without geographic restrictions or ethnic prejudice. Creolization is a geographical concept which focuses on the inflow of commodities to a place (as opposed to the outflow ideas from the Homogenization concept--it

As a consequence of these social, political, and academic changes, creole languages have experienced a revival in recent decades. They are increasingly and more openly being used in literature and in media, and their community prestige has improved. They are studied by linguists as languages on their own. Many have already been standardized, and are now taught in local schools and universities abroad.

Classification of creoles

Whose creole?

By the very nature of the subject, the creoleness of a particular creole usually is a matter of dispute. The parent tongues may themselves be creoles or pidgins that have disappeared before they could be documented. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade

For these reasons, the issue of which language is the parent of a creole — that is, whether a language should be classified as a "Portuguese creole" or "English creole", etc. — often has no definitive answer, and can become the topic of long-lasting controversies, where social prejudices and political considerations may interfere with the scientific discussion.

Substrate and superstrate

Main article: Substratum

The terms substratum and superstratum are often used to label the source and the target languages of a creole. In Contact linguistics, a substratum ( lat sub: under + stratum: layer → lower layer) is a Language In Contact linguistics, a substratum ( lat sub: under + stratum: layer → lower layer) is a Language In Contact linguistics, a substratum ( lat sub: under + stratum: layer → lower layer) is a Language However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in language replacement events, when the native speakers of a certain language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon that language for another language (the superstrate). Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community The outcome of such an event will be that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will be speaking a version of the superstrate, at least in more formal contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation (as in the case of Venetian and many other European non-official languages). Venetian or Venetan is a Romance language spoken by over two million people mostly in the Veneto region of Italy. Its influence on the official speech, if detectable at all, is usually limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace.

However, these terms are not as meaningful where the new language is distilled from multiple substrata and a homogeneous superstratum. The substratum-superstratum continuum becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in Papiamentu), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies. Papiamento (or Papiamentu) is the Language spoken on the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao (the so-called However, facts surrounding the substratum-superstratum opposition cannot be set aside where the substratum as the receding or already replaced source language and the superstratum as the replacing dominant target language can be clearly identified and where the respective contributions to the resulting compromise language can be weighed in a scientifically meaningful way; and this so whether the replacement leads to creole genesis or not. With creole languages, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African.

A post-creole continuum is said to come about in a context of decreolization where a creole is subject to pressure from its superstrate language. Due to the relationship between a Creole language and its superstrate language that is a language that is very closely related and whose speakers assert social political and economic Decreolization is a hypothetical phenomenon whereby over time a Creole language reconverges with one of the standard languages from which it originally derived Speakers of the creole feel compelled to conform their language to superstrate usage introducing large scale variation and hypercorrection. Hypercorrection is a Linguistic phenomenon which may take any of the following forms an elaborate prescriptively based correction of common

Shared features

See also: Syntactic similarities of creoles and relexification

Comparing the different creoles in any theory-orientated perpective, whether phylogenetic or purely typological in nature, leads to widely divergent results. Relexification is a term in Linguistics used to describe the mechanism of Language change by which one Language replaces much or all of its Lexicon The score of similarities will be higher when the comparison is restricted to European-based creoles and excluding non-European-based creoles such as Nubi and Sango. The Nubi language (also called Ki-Nubi) is a Sudanese Arabic -based Creole language spoken in Uganda around Bombo, and in French creoles show closer affinities with Koiné French than with other European-based creoles. A French creole, or French-based creole language, is a Creole language based on the French language, more specifically on a 17th century koiné In Linguistics, a koiné language ( common language) is a Standard language or Dialect, that has arisen as a result of contact between two The comparative work of Bickerton (1981) argued against the monogenetic theory of pidgins^[8] according to which, most European-based pidgins and creoles hail from a Mediterranean Lingua Franca via a broken Portuguese relexified in the slave factories of Western Africa. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. See also Creole language According to the theory of monogenesis in its most radical form all Pidgins and Creole languages of the world can be ultimately The Lingua franca of the Mediterranean or Sabir ("know" was a Pidgin language used as a Lingua franca in the Mediterranean Basin from Relexification is a term in Linguistics used to describe the mechanism of Language change by which one Language replaces much or all of its Lexicon The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World

Particularly troubling is the evidence that definite articles are predominantly prenominal in English-based creole languages and English whereas they are predominantly postnominal in French creoles and French koinés. Pre-nominal letters are a Title which is placed before the name of a person as distinct from a post-nominal title which is placed after the name An English-based creole language, or English creole for short is a Creole language that was significantly influenced by the English language. Post-nominal letters, also called " post-nominal initials " or " post-nominal titles " are letters placed after the name of a person to indicate that A French creole, or French-based creole language, is a Creole language based on the French language, more specifically on a 17th century koiné In Linguistics, a koiné language ( common language) is a Standard language or Dialect, that has arisen as a result of contact between two ^[9] Moreover, as already noted by Whorf (1956), the European languages which gave rise to the colonial creole languages all belong to the same subgroup of Western Indo-European and have highly convergent systems of grammar to the point where they form a homogeneous group of languages Whorf called Standard Average European (SAE) to distinguish them from languages of other grammatical types. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. Standard Average European ( SAE) is a concept introduced by Benjamin Whorf to distinguish Indo-European and especially Western Indo-European languages from French and English are particularly close since English, through extensive borrowing, is typologically closer to French than to other Germanic languages. According to Vennemann (2006), most European languages themselves might even share a common substratum as well as a common superstratum. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Creole genesis

There are a variety of theories on the origin of creole languages, all of which attempt to explain the similarities among them. Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) outline a fourfold classification of explanations regarding creole genesis:

• Theories focusing on European input
• Theories focusing on non-European input
• Gradualist and developmental hypotheses
• Universalist approaches

Theories focusing on European input

• 1. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles

The monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles hypothesizes a single origin for these languages, deriving them through relexification from a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the 17th century and ultimately from the Lingua franca of the Mediterranean. See also Creole language According to the theory of monogenesis in its most radical form all Pidgins and Creole languages of the world can be ultimately Relexification is a term in Linguistics used to describe the mechanism of Language change by which one Language replaces much or all of its Lexicon The Lingua franca of the Mediterranean or Sabir ("know" was a Pidgin language used as a Lingua franca in the Mediterranean Basin from This theory was originally formulated by Hugo Schuchardt in the late 19th century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Douglas Taylor,^[10] as well as in Whinnom (1956), Thompson (1961) and Stewart (1962). Hugo Ernst Mario Schuchardt ( 4 February 1842, Gotha ( Thüringen) – 21 april 1927, Graz ( Styria A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

• 2. The Domestic Origin Hypothesis

Proposed by Hancock (1985) for the development of a local form of English in West Africa, the Domestic Origin Hypothesis argues that, towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to settle in the Gambia and Sierra Leone rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coasts. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations and as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created, which in turn was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creoles.

• 3. European dialect origin hypotheses

The French creoles are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal" linguistic change and their creoleness to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin though there are some similarities with Hancock's domestic origin hypothesis. A French creole, or French-based creole language, is a Creole language based on the French language, more specifically on a 17th century koiné Language change is the manner in which the phonetic, morphological, semantic, syntactic, and other features of a language are modified over time Créolité is a literary movement first developed in the 1980s by Martinican writers Patrick Chamoiseau, Jean Bernabé and Raphaël Confiant. Ian Hancock ( Romani: Yanko le Redžosko) is a renowned linguist Romani scholar and human rights advocate ^[11]

• 4. Foreigner talk or baby talk

The foreigner talk hypothesis (FT) argues that a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and the speech which is usually directed at children, it is also sometimes called baby talk. ^[12]

Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:

• Accommodation
• Imitation
• Telegraphic condensation
• Conventions

This could explain why creole languages have much in common, while avoiding a monogenetic model. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. However, Hinnenkamp (1984), in analyzing German Foreigner Talk, claims that it is too inconsistent and unpredictable to provide any model for language learning. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

While the simplification of input was supposed to account for creoles' simple grammar, there are a number of problems with this explanation:^[13]

1. There are too many grammatical similarities amongst pidgins and creoles despite having very different lexifier languages
2. Grammatical simplification can be explained by other processes, i. e. the innate grammar of Bickerton's language bioprogram theory. Derek Bickerton (born March 25, 1926) is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa See also Creole language The Language bioprogram theory or Language bioprogram hypothesis (LBH is a theory arguing that the structural similarities between
3. Speakers of a creole's lexifier language often fail to understand, without learning the language, the grammar of a pidgin or creole.
4. Pidgins are more often used amongst speakers of different substrate languages than between such speakers and those of the lexifier language.

Another problem with the FT explanation is its potential circularity. Bloomfield (1933) points out that FT is often based on the imitation of the incorrect speech of the non-natives, that is the pidgin. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. Therefore one may be mistaken in assuming that the former gave rise to the latter.

Theories focusing on non-European input

Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole during the relexification process. The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways. Bickerton (1981) argues that the number and diversity of African languages and the paucity of a historical record on creole genesis makes determining lexical correspondences a matter of chance. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. Dillard (1970) coined the term "cafeteria principle" to refer to the practice of arbitrarily attributing features of creoles to the influence of substrate African languages or assorted substandard dialects of European languages. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

For a representative debate on this issue, see the contributions to Mufwene (1993); for an up-to-date view, Parkvall (2000). A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Because of the sociohistoric similarities amongst many (but by no means all), the Atlantic slave trade and the plantation system of European colonies have been emphasized by linguists such as McWhorter (1999). The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin.

Gradualist and developmental hypotheses

One class of creoles might start as pidgins, rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languages. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade Keith Whinnom (in Hymes (1971)) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the others. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like word inflections, which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word order. In Grammar, inflection or inflexion is the way language handles grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, mood, voice In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech — syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation —tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's background.

If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. Pidgins can become full languages in only a single generation. Generation (from the Greek γενεά) also known as procreation, is the act of producing Offspring. "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed native language. The vocabulary, too, will contain more and more words according to a rational and stable system. ^[14]

Universalist approaches

Universalist models stress the intervention of specific general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from speaker to speaker. Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards semantic transparency, first language learning driven by universal process, or general process of discourse organization. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Linguistic transparency is a phrase which is used in multiple overlapping subjects in the fields of Linguistics and the philosophy of language One hotly debated issue is whether the biological contribution includes capacities specific to language acquisition often referred to as Universal grammar. Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion An organization (or organisation &mdash see spelling differences) is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals which controls its own performance and The main source for the unversalist approach is still Bickerton's^[15] work. Derek Bickerton (born March 25, 1926) is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa His language bioprogram theory claims that creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded plantations. See also Creole language The Language bioprogram theory or Language bioprogram hypothesis (LBH is a theory arguing that the structural similarities between Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as natural languages; and the children used their own innate linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language. In the Philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a Language that is spoken or written in phonemic-alphabetic or phonemically-related The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent

Recent study

The last decade has seen the emergence of some new approaches to creole studies, namely the question of complexity of creoles and the question of whether creoles are "exceptional" languages.

The creole prototype

If creole languages form a group which is different from other languages, they should have a set of features which clearly distinguishes them from "other" languages. Some features have been proposed (by Bickerton^[16] for example), but no uncontestable unique creole features has been put forth so far. Features that are said to be true of all (or most) creole languages are in fact true of all isolating languages. Such features are then necessary but not sufficient to single out creole languages from non-creole isolating languages. In morphological typology (in linguistics an isolating language (also analytic language) is any Language in which words are composed of

John McWhorter^[17] has proposed the following list of features to indicate a Creole Prototype:

• no inflectional morphology (or no more than two or three inflectional affixes)
• no tone on monosyllabics
• no semantically opaque word formation

The hypotheses is that every language with these three features is a creole, and every creole must have these three features. John Hamilton McWhorter V (1965-) is an American linguist and political commentator

The creole prototype hypothesis has been attacked from two different perspectives:

• Henri Wittmann and Gil (2001) argue that languages such as Manding, Sooninke, Magoua French and Riau Indonesian have all these three features, but are natural languages like any other. Henri Wittmann (born 1937 is a Canadian linguist from Quebec. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The Manding languages are a fairly mutually intelligible group of dialects or languages in West Africa, belonging to the Mande languages. The Soninke language (Soninke Soninkanxaane) is a Mande language spoken by the Soninke people of West Africa. Magoua is a particular Dialect of Basilectal Quebec French spoken in the Trois-Rivières area between Trois-Rivières and Maskinongé Riau is a province of Indonesia, located in the center of Sumatra Island along the Strait of Malacca. Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of These languages show none of the sociohistoric traits of creole languages.

• Many other linguists have adduced one or the other creole language which responds positively to one of McWhorter's three features (for example, inflectional morphology in Berbice Dutch Creole, tone in Papiamentu). Berbice Dutch Creole is Dutch-based creole language of Guyana. Papiamento (or Papiamentu) is the Language spoken on the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao (the so-called

Exceptionalism

Building up on this discussion, McWhorter has proposed that "The world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars" (not "Creoles are the simplest languages"). He claims that no non-Creole language will be found which will be less complex than any creole language. To this, David Gil replied that Riau Indonesian is precisely such a language, and that Riau has a simpler grammar than Saramaccan, the language McWhorter uses as a showcase for his theory. Saramaccan ( Autonym: Saamáka) is a Creole language spoken by about 24000 people near the Saramacca and upper Suriname The same objections were raised by Wittmann in his 1999 debate with McWhorter. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) ^[18]

Jeff Good has shown that Saramaccan suprasegmental phonology is quite complex,^[19] though showing that creoles can be complex does not disprove McWhorter's hypothesis; it must be shown that non-Creoles can be as simple or more simple than the Creoles that they are compared to. In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech ^[20]

The lack of progress made in defining creoles morphosyntactically has led some scholars to question the value of Creole as a typological class. Robert Chaudenson, Mufwene^[21] and Wittmann have argued that Creole languages are structurally no different from any other language, and that Creole is in fact a sociohistoric concept (and not a linguistic one), encompassing displaced population and slavery. Salikoko Mufwene is a linguist born in Mbaya-Lareme in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Henri Wittmann (born 1937 is a Canadian linguist from Quebec.

Thomason & Kaufman (1988) spell out the idea of creole exceptionalism, claiming that creole languages are an instance of non-genetic language change due to the language shift without normal transmission. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. Gradualists question the abnormal transmission of languages in a creole setting and argue that the processes which lead to today's creole languages are in no way different from the universal patterns of language change.

Given that the concept of creoleness is disputed on both morphosyntactic and evolutionary grounds, the idea of creoles being exceptional in any meaningful way is increasingly questioned, giving rise to publications entitled "Against Creole Exceptionalism"^[22] or "Deconstructing Creole". ^[23]. Mufwene (2002) argues that it is only history that prevents us from considering some Romance languages as potential creoles. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all

See also

Related articles

• Creolistics
• Gradualism
• Language change
• Language contact
• Lingua franca
• Mixed language
• Nicaraguan Sign Language
• Relexification
• Substratum

Creoles by main parent language

• Arabic-based creole languages
• Dutch-based creole languages
• English-based creole languages
• French-based creole languages
• German-based creole languages
• Malay-based creole languages
• Ngbandi-based creole languages
• Portuguese-based creole languages
• Spanish-based creole languages

Notes

References

• Ansaldo, U. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. & S. Matthews (2007), "Deconstructing creole: The rationale", Typological Studies in Language 73: 1-20
• Arends, Jacques; Pieter Muysken & Norval Smith (1995), written at Amsterdam, Pidgins and creoles: An introduction, Benjamins, ISBN 902725236X
• Bickerton, Derek (1981), Roots of Language, Karoma Publishers, ISBN 0-89720-044-6
• Bickerton, Derek (1983), "Creole Languages", Scientific American 249 (8): 116-122
• Bickerton, Derek (1984), "The language bioprogram hypothesis", The Behavioral an Brain Sciences 7: 173-188
• Bloomfield, L. Derek Bickerton (born March 25, 1926) is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa Derek Bickerton (born March 25, 1926) is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa Derek Bickerton (born March 25, 1926) is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa (1933), written at New York, Language, Henry Holt
• DeGraff, Michel (2001), "On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics", Linguistic Typology 5 (2-3): 213-310
• DeGraff, Michel (2002), "Relexification: A reevaluation", Linguistic Anthropology 44 (4): 321-414
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External links

• Society for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics (SPCL)
• Association for Portuguese and Spanish Lexically Based Creoles (ACBLPE)
• Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles
• Groupe d'Etude et de Recherche en Espace Créolophone (GEREC)
• Associação Brasileira de Estudos Crioulos e Similares (ABECS)
• Society for Caribbean Linguistics (SCL)
• The Online Dictionary of Language Terminology

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