Court of Love in Provence in the 14th Century (after a manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris).

Courtly love was a medieval European conception of ennobling love which found its genesis in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne and ducal Burgundy, at the end of the eleventh century. Aquitaine (Aquitània Akitania archaic Guyenne / Guienne (Occitan Guiana) is one of the 26 Regions of France, in the south-western part of Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France Champagne is a historic province in the northeast of France, best known for the production of the sparkling white wine that bears the region's name Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) In essence, courtly love was a contradictory experience between erotic desire and spiritual attainment, "a love at once illicit and morally elevating, passionate and disciplined, humiliating and exalting, human and transcendent". In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. In Philosophy, the adjective transcendental and the noun transcendence convey three different but related primary meanings all of them derived from the word's literal ^[1]

The term "courtly love" was first popularized by Gaston Paris in 1883, and has since come under a wide variety of definitions and uses, even being dismissed as nineteenth-century romantic fiction. Bruno Paulin Gaston Paris ( August 9, 1839 – March 5, 1903) known as Gaston Paris was a French writer and scholar Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Its interpretation, origins and influences continue to be a matter of critical debate.

Origin of term

The term amour courtois ("courtly love") was given its original definition by Gaston Paris in his 1883 article "Études sur les romans de la Table Ronde: Lancelot du Lac, II: Le conte de la charrette", a treatise inspecting Chretien de Troyes's Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart (1177). Chrétien de Troyes was a French poet and Trouvère who flourished in the late 12th century. Lancelot the Knight of the Cart (Lancelot le Chevalier de la Charrette is an Old French poem by Chrétien de Troyes. Paris said amour courtois was an idolization and ennobling discipline. The term role model was introduced by Robert K Merton. Merton says that individuals compare themselves with "reference groups" of people who occupy the social The lover (idolizer) accepts the independence of his mistress and tries to make himself worthy of her by acting bravely and honorably (nobly) and by doing whatever deeds she might desire. Sexual satisfaction, Paris said, may not have been a goal or even end result, but the love was not entirely Platonic either, as it was based on sexual attraction (see section on sexuality below for further views). NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS***************

Courtly vignettes on an ivory mirror-case, first third of the 14th century (Musée du Louvre)

The term and Paris's definition were soon widely accepted and adopted. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France In 1936 C. S. Lewis wrote the influential The Allegory of Love further solidifying courtly love as "love of a highly specialized sort, whose characteristics may be enumerated as Humility, Courtesy, Adultery, and the Religion of Love". Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963 The Allegory of Love A Study in Medieval Tradition ( 1936) by C ^[2]

Later, historians such as D. W. Robertson^[3] in the 1960s and John C. Moore^[4] and E. Talbot Donaldson^[5] in the 1970s, were critical of the term as being a modern invention, Donaldson calling it "The Myth of Courtly Love", because it is not supported in medieval texts. However, even though the term "courtly love" does appear only in just one extant Provençal poem (as cortez amors in a late 12th century lyric by Peire d'Alvernhe), it is closely related to the term fin'amor ("fine love") which does appear frequently in Provençal and French, as well as German translated as hohe Minne. Peire d'Alvernhe or d'Alvernha ( Pèire in modern Occitan; b c In addition other terms and phrases associated with "courtliness" and "love" are common throughout the Middle Ages. Even though Paris used a term with little support in the contemporaneous literature, it was not a neologism and does usefully describe a particular conception of love and focuses on the courtliness that was at its essence. A neologism (from Greek neo = "new" + logos = "word" is a word that although devised relatively recently in a specific time period has been ^[6]

History

Courtly Love comes in the basket

The doctrine of courtly love was developed in the castle life of four regions: Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne and ducal Burgundy, from around the time of the First Crusade (1099). Aquitaine (Aquitània Akitania archaic Guyenne / Guienne (Occitan Guiana) is one of the 26 Regions of France, in the south-western part of Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France Champagne is a historic province in the northeast of France, best known for the production of the sparkling white wine that bears the region's name Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing Courtly love found its expression in the lyric poems written by troubadours, such as William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071-1126), one of the first troubadour poets. A troubadour ( IPA:, originally) was a composer and performer of Occitan Lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100&ndash1350

Poets adopted the terminology of feudalism, declaring themselves the vassal of the lady and addressing her as midons (my lord), a sort of code name so that the poet did not have to reveal the lady's name, but which was flattering by addressing her as his lord. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, The troubadour's model of the ideal lady was the wife of his employer or lord, a lady of higher status, usually the rich and powerful female head of the castle. When her husband was away on Crusade or other business she dominated the household and cultural affairs; sometimes this was the case even when the husband was at home. The lady was rich and powerful and the poet gave voice to the aspirations of the courtier class, for only those who were noble could engage in courtly love. This new kind of love saw nobility not based on wealth and family history, but on character and actions; thus appealing to poorer knights who saw an avenue for advancement.

Warfare imagery: the Siege of the Castle of Love on an ivory mirror-back, possibly Paris, ca. 1350–1370 (Musée du Louvre)

Eleanor of Aquitaine brought ideals of courtly love from Aquitaine first to the court of France, then to England, where she was queen to two kings. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France For other Eleanors of England see Eleanor of England (disambiguation Eleanor Duchess of Aquitaine (1122&ndash1 April 1204 Her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne brought courtly behavior to the Count of Champagne's court. Marie of France, or Marie Capet, Countess of Champagne (1145 &ndash March 11, 1198) was the elder daughter of Louis VII of France Counts of Champagne ruled the region of Champagne from 950 to 1316 The rules of courtly love were codified by the late 12th century in Andreas Capellanus' highly influential work De Amore ("Concerning Love"). Andreas Capellanus ( Capellanus meaning "chaplain" was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" Andreas Capellanus was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" also known as De arte honeste amandi

Analysis

"God Speed!" by Edmund Blair Leighton, 1900: a late Victorian view of a lady giving a favor to a knight about to do battle

Courtly love saw a woman as an ennobling spiritual and moral force, a view that was in opposition to ecclesiastical sexual attitudes. Edmund Blair Leighton ( September 21, 1853 &mdash September 1, 1922) was an English painter associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Rather than being critical of romantic and sexual love as sinful, the poets praised it as the highest good. Marriage had been declared a sacrament of the Church, at the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215, and within Christian marriage, the only purpose was procreation with any sex beyond that purpose seen as non-pious. NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active The Fourth Council of the Lateran was summoned by Pope Innocent III with his Papal bull of April 19, 1213. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced The ideal state of a Christian was celibacy, even in marriage. Celibacy refers to the lack of participation in Sexual intercourse. By the beginning of the 13th century the ideas of courtly tradition were condemned by the church as being heretical. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The church channeled many of these energies into the devotion of the Blessed Virgin Mary; it is not a coincidence that the Church used her devotion to Virgin Mary as a counter to the secular, courtly and lustful views of women in the 12th century. This ecumenical article is about general Christian views on and veneration of the Virgin Mary Francis of Assisi called poverty "his Lady". For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see Saint-François d'Assise.

Courtly love had a civilizing effect on knightly behavior, beginning in the late 11th century; it has been suggested that the prevalence of arranged marriages required other outlets for the expression of more personal occurrences of romantic love. New expressions of highly personal private piety in the 11th century were at the origins of what a modern observer would recognize as a personality, and the vocabulary of piety was also transferred to the conventions of courtly love.

At times, the lady could be a princesse lointaine, a far-away princess, and some tales told of men who had fallen in love with women whom they had never seen, merely on hearing their perfection described, but normally she was not so distant. A princess lointaine or princesse lointaine, (in French, "distant princess" is a Stock character from medieval romances The As the etiquette of courtly love became more complicated, the knight might wear the colors of his lady: where blue or black were sometimes the colors of faithfulness; green could be a sign of unfaithfulness. Etiquette is a code that governs the expectations of Social behavior, according to the contemporary conventional norm within a Society, Salvation, previously found in the hands of the priesthood, now came from the hands of one's lady. In some cases, there were also women troubadours who expressed the same sentiment for men.

Literary convention

The literary convention of courtly love can be found in most of the major authors of the Middle Ages such as Geoffery Chaucer, John Gower, Dante, Marie de France, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried von Strassburg and Malory. Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. John Gower (c 1330 – October 1408 was an English Poet, a contemporary of William Langland and a personal friend of Geoffrey Chaucer. Marie de France ("Mary of France" was a Poet evidently born in France and living in England during the late 12th century Chrétien de Troyes was a French poet and Trouvère who flourished in the late 12th century. Gottfried von Strassburg (died c 1210 is the author of the Middle High German Courtly romance Tristan, which is regarded alongside Wolfram Sir Thomas Malory (c 1405 – 14 March 1471 was an English writer the author or compiler of Le Morte d'Arthur.

The medieval genres in which courtly love conventions can be found include the lyric, the Romance and the allegory. A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative An allegory (from αλλος allos "other" and el αγορευειν agoreuein "to speak in public" is a figurative mode of representation

Lyric

Courtly love was born in the lyric, first appearing with Provençal poets in the 11th century, including itinerant and courtly minstrels such as the French troubadours and trouveres. Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music A troubadour ( IPA:, originally) was a composer and performer of Occitan Lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100&ndash1350 Trouvère ( MWCD: /trü'ver trü'vər/ sometimes spelled trouveur, is the Northern French ( Langue d'oïl) form of the word Troubadour This French tradition spread later to the German Minnesänger, such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Minnesang was the tradition of lyric and Song writing in Germany which flourished in the 12th century and continued into the 14th century Walther von der Vogelweide (c 1170 - c 1230 is the most celebrated of the Middle High German lyric Poets Life history For all his fame Walther's

Romance

The vernacular poetry of the romans courtois, or courtly romances, included many examples of courtly love. As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative Some of them are set within the cycle of poems celebrating King Arthur's court. King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders This was a literature of leisure, directed to a largely female audience for the first time in European history.

Allegory

Medieval allegory has courtly love elements, for example the first part of The Romance of the Rose. Allegory in the Middle Ages was a vital element in the Synthesis of Biblical and Classical traditions into what would become recognizable as Medieval culture The Roman de la rose is a medieval French poem styled as an allegorical dream vision

Others

Perhaps the most important and popular work was that of Andreas Capellanus's De Amore which described the ars amandi ("the art of loving") in twelfth century Provence. Andreas Capellanus ( Capellanus meaning "chaplain" was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" Andreas Capellanus was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" also known as De arte honeste amandi Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France His work followed in the tradition of the Roman work Ars amatoria ("Art of Love") by Ovid and the Muslim work Tawq al-hamamah (The turtle-dove's necklace) by Ibn Hazm. Publius Ovidius Naso ( March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD was a Roman poet known to the English -speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics including The Ring of the Dove ( Arabic: طوق الحمامة Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah) is a treatise on love written ca Ibn Hazm ( 7 November 994 &ndash 15 August 1064 was an Andalusian - Arab philosopher, litterateur

The themes of courtly love were not confined to the medieval, but seen both in serious and comic forms in Elizabethan times. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, for example, shows Romeo attempting to love Rosaline in an almost contrived courtly fashion while Mercutio mocks him for it.

Points of controversy

Sexuality

Part of a series on Love
Basic Aspects
Love
Love (scientific views)
Human bonding
Historically
Courtly love
Greek love
Religious love
Types of emotion
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See also
Unrequited love
Problem of love
Interpersonal relationship
Sexuality
Sexual intercourse
Valentine's Day
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A point of ongoing controversy about courtly love is to what extent it was sexual. Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Overview Psychologists have created many descriptive theories of love in an effort to understand the full range of experiences and behaviors associated with love Human bonding refers to the development of a close Interpersonal relationship between family members or friends Greek love is a relatively modern coinage (generally placed within quotation marks intended as a reference to Male bonding and intimate relations between males as practised Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to interpersonal love is a matter for philosophical debate Amor Platonicus The term amor platonicus was coined as early as the 15th century by the Florentine scholar Marsilio Ficino In Sociology, familial love is a type affinity or natural affection felt between members of a group bound by common ancestry or blood ties or through Friendship and Puppy love is an informal term for feelings of Love, particularly between young people during Adolescence, so-called for its resemblance to the adoring worshipful NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** Unrequited love is love that is not openly reciprocated even though reciprocation is usually deeply desired Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people Generally speaking human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings Sexual intercourse, in its biological sense is the act in which the male reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals enters the female reproductive tract Valentine's Day or Saint Valentine's Day is a Holiday celebrated on February 14 All courtly love was erotic to some degree, and not purely platonic—the troubadours speak of the physical beauty of their ladies and the feelings and desires the ladies rouse in them. Amor Platonicus The term amor platonicus was coined as early as the 15th century by the Florentine scholar Marsilio Ficino However, it is unclear what a poet should do: live a life of perpetual desire channeling his energies to higher ends, or physically consummate. Scholars have seen it both ways.

Denis de Rougemont said that the troubadours were influenced by Cathar doctrines which rejected the pleasures of the flesh and that they were metaphorically addressing the spirit and soul of their ladies. Denis de Rougemont ( September 8, 1906 &ndash December 6, 1985) was a Swiss writer who wrote in French. ^[7] Edmund Reiss claimed it was also a spiritual love, but a love that had more in common with Christian love, or caritas. Caritas may refer to The Latin term for Charity (virtue, one of the three theological virtues Caritas (Buffyverse, a fictional demon-friendly ^[8] On the other hand, scholars such as Mosché Lazar claim it was adulterous sexual love with physical possession of the lady the desired end. ^[9]

Many scholars identify courtly love as the "pure love" described in 1184 by Andreas Capellanus in De amore libri tres:^[10]

It is the pure love which binds together the hearts of two lovers with every feeling of delight. Andreas Capellanus ( Capellanus meaning "chaplain" was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" Andreas Capellanus was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" also known as De arte honeste amandi This kind consists in the contemplation of the mind and the affection of the heart; it goes as far as the kiss and the embrace and the modest contact with the nude lover, omitting the final solace, for that is not permitted for those who wish to love purely. . . . That is called mixed love which gets its effect from every delight of the flesh and culminates in the final act of Venus.

Within the corpus of troubadour poems there is a wide range of attitudes, even across the works of individual poets. Some poems are physically sensual, even bawdily imagining nude embraces, while others are highly spiritual and border on the platonic. ^[11]

Andalusian and Islamicate influence

Many of the conventions of courtly love can be traced to Ovid, through Andreas Capellanus, but it is doubtful that they are all traceable to this origin. Andreas Capellanus ( Capellanus meaning "chaplain" was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly entitled De amore ("About Love" Accounts of courtly love often overlook the Arabist hypothesis, which has been posed in some form almost from the beginnings of the term "courtly love" in the modern period. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers A proposed source for the differences is the Arabic poets and poetry of Muslim Spain and the broader European contact with the Islamicate world. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or

Given that practices similar to courtly love were already prevalent in Al-Andalus and elsewhere in the Islamic world, it is very likely that Islamic practices influenced the Christian Europeans. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or William of Aquitane, for example, was involved in the First Crusade, and in the ongoing Reconquista in Spain, so that he would have come into contact with Muslim culture a great deal. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period

According to G. E. von Grunebaum, there were several elements which developed in Arabic literature. The notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his treatise Risala fi'l-Ishq (Treatise on Love). Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was at times implicit in Arabic poetry, but was first developed into a doctrine in European literature, in which all four elements of courtly love were present. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. European literature refers to the Literature of Europe. European literature includes literature in many Languages; among the most important of the modern ^[12]

According to an argument outlined by Maria Rosa Menocal in The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History, in 11th-century Spain, a group of wandering poets appeared who would go from court to court, and sometimes travel to Christian courts in southern France, a situation closely mirroring what would happen in southern France about a century later. María Rosa Menocal is a scholar of Medieval culture and history Contacts between these Spanish poets and the French troubadours were frequent. The metrical forms used by the Spanish poets were similar to those later used by the troubadours.

Real-world practice

A continued point of controversy is whether courtly love was purely literary or was actually practiced in real life. There are no historical records that offer evidence of its presence in reality. Historian John Benton found no documentary evidence in law codes, court cases, chronicles or other historical documents. Sergeant Benton is a Fictional character in the British Science fiction television series Doctor Who, played by John Levene ^[13] However, the existence of the non-fiction genre of courtesy books is perhaps evidence for its practice. For example, according to the courtesy book by Christine de Pizan called Book of the Three Virtues (ca. Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan) (1363–c1434 was a writer of the Medieval era who strongly challenged Misogyny and stereotypes that 1405), which expresses disapproval of courtly love, the convention was being used to justify and cover-up illicit love affairs. Courtly love probably found expression in the real world in customs such as the crowning of Queens of Love and Beauty at tournaments. This article is about the tournaments of the Middle Ages For the general article on tournaments see Tournament. Philip le Bon, in his Feast of the Pheasant in 1454, relied on parables drawn from courtly love to incite his nobles to swear to participate in an anticipated crusade, while well into the 15th century numerous actual political and social conventions were largely based on the formulas dictated by the "rules" of courtly love. A parable is a brief succinct story in Prose or verse, that illustrates a Moral or Religious lesson

Courts of love

A point of controversy was the existence of "courts of love", first mentioned by Andreas Capellanus. These were supposed courts made up of tribunals staffed by 10 to 70 women who would hear a case of love and rule on it based on the rules of love. 19th century historians took the existence of these courts as fact, however later historians such as John F. Benton noted "none of the abundant letters, chronicles, songs and pious dedications" suggest they ever existed outside of the poetic literature. ^[13] According to Diane Bornstein, one way to reconcile the differences between the references to courts of love in the literature, and the lack of documentary evidence in real life, is that they were like literary salons or social gatherings, where people read poems, debated questions of love, and played word games of flirtation. ^[11]

Stages of courtly love

(Adapted from Barbara Tuchman^[14])

• Attraction to the lady, usually via eyes/glance
• Worship of the lady from afar
• Declaration of passionate devotion
• Virtuous rejection by the lady
• Renewed wooing with oaths of virtue and eternal fealty
• Moans of approaching death from unsatisfied desire (and other physical manifestations of lovesickness)
• Heroic deeds of valor which win the lady's heart
• Consummation of the secret love
• Endless adventures and subterfuges avoiding detection

References

Further reading

• Duby, Georges. The Knight, the Lady, and the Priest: the Making of Modern Marriage in Medieval France. Translated by Barbara Bray. New York: Pantheon Books, 1983. (ISBN 0-226-16768-2)
• Gaunt, Simon. “Marginal Men, Marcabru, and Orthodoxy: The Early Troubadours and Adultery. ” Medium Aevum 59 (1990): 55-71.
• Lewis, C. S. The Allegory of Love: A Study in Medieval Tradition. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1936. (ISBN 0-19-281220-3)
• Menocal, Maria Rosa. The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. (ISBN 0-8122-1324-6)
• Newman, Francis X. The Meaning of Courtly Love. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1968. (ISBN 0-87395-038-0)
• Capellanus, Andreas. The Art of Courtly Love. New York: Columbia University Press, 1964.
• Schultz, James A. Courtly Love, the Love of Courtliness, and the History of Sexuality'. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006. (ISBN 0-226-74089-7)
• Ward, Matt C. The Ideas of Courtly Love Oxford, University Press, 1923 (ISBN 0-74533-762-0)

External links

• Debora B. Schwartz, "Backgrounds to Romance: 'Courtly Love'", California Polytechnic State University
• Michael Delahoyde, Courtly Love, Washington State University.
• Andreas Capellanus, "The Art of Courtly Love (btw. 1174-1186)", extracts via the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. The Internet History Sourcebooks Project is located at the Fordham University History Department and Center for Medieval Studies
• "Courtly love". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc