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The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation[1][2] or Catholic Revival[2]) denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648. Pope Pius IV ( March 31, 1499 &ndash December 9, 1565) born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was Pope from 1559 to 1565 For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War.

The Catholic Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of five major elements:

  1. Doctrine
  2. Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration
  3. Religious Orders
  4. Spiritual Movements
  5. Political Dimensions

Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality. A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is a specialized and often live-in Higher education institution for the purpose of instructing students Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The Spanish Mystics are major figures in the Catholic Reformation of 16th and 17th century Spain The French School of Spirituality was the principle devotional influence within the Catholic Church from the mid 17th Century through the mid 20th Century not only in France

Contents

Name

The two terms highlight different aspects of the movement. The term Counter-Reformation, used primarily by non-Catholics, emphasizes the view that these reforms were prompted largely by the rise of Protestants and the threat they posed to Catholic institutions. In this view, the reforms were aimed primarily at reducing the loss of the faithful to Protestantism,and the term "Catholic Reformation" identifies it as an action of the Church, not a reaction to Protestant Reformers.

Scholars such as John C. Olin, late of Fordham University, and Henri-Daniel Rops,[3] began using the term "Catholic Reformation" in the last half of the 20th century to emphasize the attempts at reform, theological and disciplinary, within the Roman Catholic Church that began before the traditional date of the launch of the Protestant Reformation by Martin Luther or before the Council of Trent (events such as the Fifth Lateran Council, the sermons on reform delivered by John Colet in England, the publication of Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia by Gasparo Contarini, the founding of the Oratory of Divine Love, and so on), and to point out that many of Trent's reforms and the work of such reformers as St. Fordham University is a private University in the United States, with three campuses located in and around New York City. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. When elected pope Julius II promised under oath that he would soon convoke a general council John Colet (January 1467 &ndash 10 September 1519) was an English churchman and Educational pioneer The Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia was a report commissioned by Pope Paul III on the abuses in the Catholic Church in 1536. Gasparo Contarini (16 October 1483 - 24 August 1542 was an Italian Diplomat and cardinal. Philip Neri, St. St Philip Romolo Neri (Italian Filippo de Neri; also known as Apostle of Rome; July 22, 1515 – May 25, 1595 Ignatius of Loyola and St. Saint Ignatius redirects here for other Saints see Ignatius. Ignatius of Loyola, also known as Íñigo Oñaz López de Loyola Teresa of Avila, while influenced by the response to the Protestants were far wider and more comprehensive than a mere response to the challenge of growing Protestantism. For other saints with similar names please see Saint Teresa. Saint Teresa of Ávila, known in religion as Saint Teresa of Jesus and They argue that much of this was about suppressing abuses and corruption within the Roman Catholic Church for the sake of its own virtue, and that the reforms included more than just stamping out Protestant "heresy. "

The Council of Trent

Main article: Council of Trent
A session of the Council of Trent, from an engraving.
A session of the Council of Trent, from an engraving. The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church.

Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563), a commission of cardinals tasked with institutional reform, addressing contentious issues such as corrupt bishops and priests, indulgences, and other financial abuses. Pope Paul III ( February 29, 1468 &ndash November 10, 1549) born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven The Council clearly rejected specific Protestant positions and upheld the basic structure of the Medieval Church, its sacramental system, religious orders, and doctrine. It rejected all compromise with the Protestants, restating basic tenets of the Catholic faith. The Council clearly upheld salvation appropriated by grace through faith and works (not just by faith, as the Protestants insisted). Transubstantiation, during which the consecrated bread and wine were held to be transformed wholly and substantially into the body, blood, humanity and divinity of Christ, was upheld, along with the other six Sacraments. See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence. Other practices that drew the ire of Protestant reformers, such as indulgences, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints and relics, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed as spiritually vital. In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance The Council also commissioned the Roman Catechism, which still serves as authoritative Church teaching (the Catechism of the Catholic Church, issued in 1992, updates the language and contains modern explications, but does not differ doctrinally). During the Catholic Reformation, the Council of Trent commissioned the Roman Catechism (or Catechism of the Council of Trent published 1566) to expound The Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official exposition of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and the twenty-two

While the basic structure of the Church was reaffirmed, there were noticeable changes to answer complaints that the Counter Reformers tacitly were willing to admit were legitimate. Among the conditions to be corrected by Catholic reformers was the growing divide between the clerics and the laity; many members of the clergy in the rural parishes, after all, had been poorly educated. Often, these rural priests did not know Latin and lacked opportunities for proper theological training (addressing the education of priests had been a fundamental focus of the humanist reformers in the past). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal Parish priests were to be better educated in matters of theology and apologetics, while Papal authorities sought to educate the faithful about the meaning, nature and value of art and liturgy, particularly in monastic churches (Protestants had criticised them as distracting). Notebooks and handbooks became more common, describing how to be good priests and confessors.

Thus, the Council of Trent was dedicated to improving the discipline and administration of the Church. The worldly excesses of the secular Renaissance church, epitomized by the era of Alexander VI (1492-1503), exploded in the Reformation under Pope Leo X (1513-1522), whose campaign to raise funds in the German states to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica by supporting use of indulgences was a key impetus for Martin Luther's 95 Theses. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Pope Alexander VI ( 1 January 1431 &ndash 18 August 1503) born Roderic Llançol, later Roderic de Borja i Borja ( Pope Leo X, born Giovanni de' Medici (December 11 1475 – December 1 1521 was Pope from 1513 to his death The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 But the Catholic Church would respond to these problems by a vigorous campaign of reform, inspired by earlier Catholic reform movements that predated the Council of Constance (1414-1417): humanism, devotionalism, legalist and the observantine tradition. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Constance is the 16th Ecumenical council.

The Council, by virtue of its actions, repudiated the pluralism of the Secular Renaissance Church: the organization of religious institutions was tightened, discipline was improved, and the parish was emphasized. The appointment of Bishops for political reasons was no longer tolerated. In the past, the large landholdings forced many bishops to be "absent bishops" who at times were property managers trained in administration. Thus, the Council of Trent combated "absenteeism," which was the practice of bishops living in Rome or on landed estates rather than in their dioceses. The Council of Trent also gave bishops greater power to supervise all aspects of religious life. Zealous prelates such as Milan's Archbishop Carlo Borromeo (1538-1584), later canonized as a saint, set an example by visiting the remotest parishes and instilling high standards. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Saint Charles Borromeo (Carlo Borromeo Latinized as Carolus Borromeus) ( October 2 1538 – November 3 1584) is an At the parish level, the seminary-trained clergy who took over in most places during the course of the seventeenth century were overwhelmingly faithful to the church's rule of celibacy. Celibacy refers to the lack of participation in Sexual intercourse.

The orders

New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the Capuchins, Ursulines, Theatines, the Barnabites, and especially the Jesuits strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church, and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal. The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin ( OFM Cap; in England and Ireland, O The Ursulines are a Roman Catholic Religious order founded at Brescia, Italy by Saint Angela de Merici in November 1535 primarily The Theatines or the Congregation of Clerks Regular of the Divine Providence are a male Religious order of the Catholic Church, with the post-nominal initials The Barnabites, or Clerics Regular of Saint Paul ( Latin: Clerici Regulares Sancti Pauli, abbr The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order The Theatines were an order of devoted priests who undertook to check the spread of heresy and contribute to a regeneration of the clergy. The Capuchins, an offshoot of the Franciscan order notable for their preaching and for their care for the poor and the sick, grew rapidly in both size and popularity. The term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic The Capuchin fathers were an order based on the imitation of Jesus' life as described by the Gospels. This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament Capuchin-founded confraternities thus took special interest in the poor and lived austere lifestyles. These differing approaches were often complementary, as with the missions to rural areas poorly served by the existing parish structure. Members of orders active in overseas missionary expansionism expressed the view that the rural parishes, whose poor state of affairs contributed to the growth of Protestantism, often needed Christianizing as much as heathens of Asia and the Americas. The Ursulines focused on the special task of educating girls. Their devotion to the traditional works of mercy exemplifies the Catholic Reformations reaffirmation of salvation through faith and works, and firmly repudiated the sola scriptura of the Protestants emphasized by Lutherans and other Protestant sects. Sola scriptura ( Latin ablative, "by scripture alone" is the assertion that the Bible as God's written word is self-authenticating Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Not only did they make the Church more effective, they reaffirmed fundamental premises of the Medieval Church.

However, the Jesuits, founded by the Spanish nobleman and ex-soldier Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), were the most effective of the new Catholic orders. Saint Ignatius redirects here for other Saints see Ignatius. Ignatius of Loyola, also known as Íñigo Oñaz López de Loyola His Societas de Jesus was founded in 1534 and received papal authorization in 1540 under Paul III. An heir to the devotional, observantine, and legalist traditions, the Jesuits organized their order along military lines, they strongly reflected the autocratic zeal of the period. Characterized by careful selection, rigorous training, and iron discipline, the worldliness of the Renaissance Church had no part in the new order. Loyola's masterwork Spiritual Exercises reflected the emphasis of handbooks characteristic of the earlier generation of Catholic reformers before the Reformation. The Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, (written within 1522-1524 are a brief set of Meditations Prayers and mental exercises available in various The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The great psychological penetration that it conveyed was strongly reminiscent of devotionalism. However, the Jesuits are really the heirs to the observantine reform tradition, taking strong monastic vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty and setting an example that improved the effectiveness of the entire Church. They became preachers, confessors to monarchs and princes, and educators reminiscent of the humanist reformers, and their efforts are largely credited with stemming Protestantism in Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, southern Germany, France, and the Spanish Netherlands. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands They also strongly participated in the expansion of the Church in the Americas and Asia, conducting efforts in missionary activity that far outpaced even the aggressive Protestantism of the Calvinists. Even Loyola's biography contributed to the new emphasis on popular piety that had been waning under the eras of politically oriented popes such as Alexander VI and Leo X. Pope Alexander VI ( 1 January 1431 &ndash 18 August 1503) born Roderic Llançol, later Roderic de Borja i Borja ( Pope Leo X, born Giovanni de' Medici (December 11 1475 – December 1 1521 was Pope from 1513 to his death After recovering from a severe battle wound, he took a vow to "serve only God and the Roman pontiff, His vicar on earth. " Once again, the emphasis on the Pope is a key reaffirmation of the Medieval Church as the Council of Trent firmly defeated all attempts of Conciliarism, the belief that general councils of the church collectively were God's representative on earth, rather than the Pope. The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. Conciliarism, or the conciliar movement, was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority Firmly legitimizing the new role of the Pope as an absolute ruler strongly characteristic of the new age of absolutism ushered in by the sixteenth century, the Jesuits strongly contributed to the reinvigoration of the Counter-Reformation Church.

Spiritual movements

In addition, between 1512 and the 1560s a movement of evangelical Catholics of high-ranking member of the curia, called Spirituali, actively tried to reform the Church through reform of the individual. A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people i The Spirituali were members of a Catholic reform movement from about 1510 to the 1560s This movement was strong and significant era in the Church.

Church and its music

The demand by the Council of Trent for simplicity in music in order that the words might be heard clearly placed a serious stumbling block in the path of the development of polyphony in the mid-16th century. In Music, polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent Melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice ( Monophony

The Council, in their Canon on Music to be used for the Mass, stated: All things should indeed be so ordered that the masses, whether they be celebrated with or without singing, may reach tranquilly into the ears and hearts of those who hear them, when everything is executed clearly and at the correct speed. In the case of those masses which are celebrated with singing and with organ, let nothing profane be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. The whole plan of singing should be constituted not to give empty pleasure to the ear, but in such a way that the words be clearly understood by all. And thus the hearts of listeners be drawn to desire of heavenly harmonies in the contemplation of the joys of the Blessed. They shall also banish from church all music that contains whether in the singing or in the organ playing things that are lascivious or impure.

While this was worded fairly vaguely, the intent was clear. Complex polyphony was no longer deemed acceptable by the Council. In Music, polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent Melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice ( Monophony

Palestrina's musical mastery and his skill at word setting greatly affected the outcome of this difficult situation. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (between 3 February 1525 and 2 February 1526 - 2 February 1594 was an Italian Composer of the Renaissance. By composing a six-part polyphonic mass, called the Missa Papae Marcelli (Pope Marcellus Mass), of 1555, Palestrina demonstrated that polyphony was compatible with the mandates of the Counter-Reformation. Missa Papae Marcelli, or Pope Marcellus Mass, is a mass by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Using an economy of notes, the mass setting conveys its words with surprising clarity. This represented a marked shift from the composer's earlier compositions, which often paired a single syllable with long strings of notes, called melismas, which obscured the text. Melisma, in music is singing a single syllable of text while moving between several different notes in succession The new, tighter style (which did occasionally resort to homophony) was both shorter and more comprehensible to the worshipper. The Pope Marcellus Mass was believed since the late 16th century to have been instrumental in preventing the abolition of polyphony. Recent scholarship, however, shows that this mass was composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as ten years before). The mass was not, therefore, solely responsible for "saving" Catholic church music, as is sometimes claimed. Still, Palestrina's music would become the model for future generations of Catholic composers, and it continues to be held as an exemplar for polyphonic clarity.

Like Palestrina, the Flemish composer Jacobus de Kerle (1531/32-1591) also demonstrated to Council delegates that polyphony was capable of projecting the words in a coherent manner. Jacobus de Kerle (1531/1532 - 1591-01-07) was a Flemish composer and organist of the late Renaissance. It is quite possible that Kerle, not Palestrina, should be credited as the first "savior" of polyphony. Another composer, Vincenzo Ruffo (c. Vincenzo Ruffo (c 1508 &ndash February 9, 1587) was an Italian composer of the Renaissance. 1508-1587), also complied with the reforms of the Council of Trent. Ruffo devoted himself entirely to sacred music in the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. Ruffo, however, took a different approach by dispensing with polyphony in favor of composing chordal, or homophonic, mass settings. Later in life, he apparently grew dissatisfied with homophony and returned to polyphony.

After all of the debate during the third meeting of the Council of Trent, the council's solutions gave composers very little room for artistic expression. Composers such as Palestrina and Lasso would find other ways of expressing their sacred themes during the Counter-Reformation.

The Council of Trent brought about other changes in music: most notably developing the Missa Brevis, Lauda and "Spiritual Madrigal" (Madrigali Spirituali).

The inadvertent start of the scientific revolution

Some historians such as James Burke have noted some of the directives initiated in the Counter-Reformation had consequences that would ironically create even more formidable challenges to the Catholic Church's authority and very world-view. James Burke (born 22 December 1936) is a Northern Irish Science Historian, Specifically, efforts to reform the Julian calendar may have led to the Church's confrontation with Galileo and with the scientific world in general.

This came about with the initiative to make the Catholic Church more attractive to the common person. In addition to better training for the clergy, there was also the idea of making the Church's facilities and activities more attractive to the laypeople. Part of this included extensive decorations that would eventually spawn the elaborate baroque art style and more celebrations of holidays and similar events. Baroque art redirects here Please disambiguate such links to Baroque painting, Baroque sculpture, etc

The need to have these events followed closely throughout the dioceses raised the problem with the accuracy of the calendar. The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year By the sixteenth century the Julian calendar was almost ten days out of step with the seasons and the heavenly bodies. The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita Among the astronomers who were asked to work on the problem of how the calendar could be reformed was Nicolaus Copernicus, a canon at Frombork (Frauenburg). Frombork ( is a Town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon, in Braniewo County, Warmia-Masuria Province. In the dedication to De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), Copernicus mentioned the reform of the calendar proposed by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1512-1517). De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on When elected pope Julius II promised under oath that he would soon convoke a general council As he explains, a proper measurement of the length of the year was a necessary foundation to calendar reform. By implication, his work replacing the Ptolemaic system with a heliocentric model was prompted in part by the need for calendar reform. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. An actual new calendar had to wait until the Gregorian calendar in 1582. The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today

At the time of its publication, De revolutionibus passed with relatively little comment in the Catholic Church itself, which treated the conception as little more than a mathematical convenience. However, the fact that the Earth's motion directly contradicted literal readings of the Bible[4] and Aristotle's philosophy eventually became an unavoidable issue. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. This occurred when scholars like Galileo Galilei believed he could amass physical evidence supporting heliocentrism (although he himself failed to), or at least undermining Ptolemy. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca

Major figures

References

  1. ^ Counter Reformation, from The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. This article is about the Roman Catholic saint For churches named after him see Saint Francis de Sales church. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death The Columbia Encyclopedia is a highly regarded one-volume Encyclopedia produced by Columbia University Press and sold by the Gale Group. 2001-05.
  2. ^ a b Counter Reformation, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online, latest edition, full-article. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
  3. ^ http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/ROPSCARE.TXT
  4. ^ Ptolemy, Copernicus, & the Church

See also

The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Pope Paul IV ( June 28, 1476 &ndash August 18, 1559) né Giovanni Pietro Carafa, was Pope from May 23 Pope Pope Sixtus V ( December 13, 1521 &ndash August 27, 1590) born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590 Pope Paul III ( February 29, 1468 &ndash November 10, 1549) born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain The Corpus Catholicorum ( Corp Cath CC) is a collection of sixteenth century writings by the leading proponents and defenders of Catholicism against the teachings The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe ushered in a new artistic tradition that embraced the Protestant agenda and diverged drastically from the southern European

Dictionary

Counter-Reformation

-noun

  1. A period of Roman Catholic revival that aimed to combat the Reformation
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