Cougar[1] Fossil range: Middle Pleistocene to Recent
Conservation status
Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae Genus: Puma Species: P. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Near Threatened ( NT) is a Conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa which may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future although The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands The diverse order Carnivora (kɑrˈnɪvərə or sometimes /ˌkɑrnɪˈvɔərə/ from Latin carō (stem carn-) "flesh" + vorāre Felidae is the biological family of the cats a member of this family is called a felid. Puma is a Felidae genus that contains the Cougar (also known as the Puma, among other names and the Jaguarundi. concolor
Binomial name
Puma concolor (Linnaeus, 1771)
Cougar range map

The cougar (Puma concolor), also puma, mountain lion, or panther depending on region, is a mammal of the Felidae family, native to the Americas. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Felidae is the biological family of the cats a member of this family is called a felid. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America This large, solitary cat has the greatest range of any wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere,^[3] extending from Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes of South America. Population distribution redirects here For the probability distribution of a statistical population see Probability distribution and Statistical population Yukon (ˈjuːkɒn is the westernmost and smallest of Canada's three territories. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a An adaptable, generalist species, the cougar is found in every major New World habitat type. A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources (for example a Heterotroph The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. It is the second heaviest cat in the New World, after the jaguar, and the fourth heaviest in the world, after the tiger, lion, and jaguar, although it is most closely related to smaller felines. The jaguar (Panthera onca,, or—especially in British English — is a New World Mammal of the Felidae family and one of The tiger ( Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family the largest and the most powerful of the four " Big cats quot in the Genus The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera.

A capable stalk-and-ambush predator, the cougar pursues a wide variety of prey. Primary food sources include ungulates such as deer and bighorn sheep, as well as domestic cattle, horses, and sheep, particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as insects and rodents. Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Bighorn Sheep ( Ovis canadensis) is a species of sheep in North America and Siberia with large horns which can weigh up to. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must It prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking, but it can live in open areas. The cougar is territorial and persists at low population densities. In Ethology, Sociobiology and Behavioral ecology, the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an Animal of a particular Species Individual territory sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, as when it competes for prey with animals such as the gray wolf, black bear, and the grizzly bear. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The American Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) is the most common Bear Species native to North America. The Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis, also known as the Silvertip Bear, is a Subspecies of Brown bear (Ursus arctos that lives It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people. Attacks on humans remain rare, despite a recent increase in frequency. This is a list of fatal Cougar attacks that occurred in North America by decade in chronological order ^[4]

Due to persecution following the European colonization of the Americas, and continuing human development of cougar habitat, populations have dropped in many parts of its historical range. The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492 although there was at least one earlier colonization effort In particular, the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America, except an isolated sub-population in Florida; the animal may be recolonizing parts of its former eastern territory. Local extinction is where a Species (or other Taxon) ceases to exist in the chosen area of study but still exists elsewhere The Florida panther is a critically endangered representative of Cougar ( Puma concolor) that lives in the low pinelands palm forests and With its vast range, the cougar has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas and in contemporary culture. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States.

Contents 1 Naming and etymology 2 Taxonomy and evolution 2.1 Subspecies 3 Biology and behavior 3.1 Physical characteristics 3.2 Hunting and diet 3.3 Reproduction and lifecycle 3.4 Social structure and home range 4 Ecology 4.1 Distribution and habitat 4.2 Ecological role 5 Conservation status 6 Attacks on humans 7 In mythology and culture 8 See also 9 References 10 Other resources 11 External links

Naming and etymology

The cougar has numerous names in English, of which puma and mountain lion are popular. Other names include catamount, panther, painter because of its black tail tip, and mountain screamer. In North America, "panther" is used most often to refer the Florida panther sub-population. The Florida panther is a critically endangered representative of Cougar ( Puma concolor) that lives in the low pinelands palm forests and In South America, "panther" refers to both the spotted and black color morphs of the jaguar, while it is also broadly used to refer to the Old World leopard. The jaguar (Panthera onca,, or—especially in British English — is a New World Mammal of the Felidae family and one of The leopard (lɛpɚd Panthera pardus) is an Old World Mammal of the Felidae family and the smallest of the four roaring

The cougar holds the world record for the animal with the highest number of names due to its wide distribution across North and South America. It has over 40 names in English alone. ^[5]

"Cougar" is borrowed from the Portuguese çuçuarana, via French; the term was originally derived from the Tupi language. Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people A current form in Brazil is suçuarana. "Puma" comes, via Spanish, from the Quechua language of Peru. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. ^[6]

Taxonomy and evolution

The cougar is the largest of the small cats. It is placed in the subfamily Felinae, although its bulk characteristics are similar to those of the big cats in the subfamily Pantherinae. The term big cat is used to distinguish the larger cat species from smaller ones Pantherinae is the subfamily of the family Felidae which includes the genera Panthera, Uncia and Neofelis ^[1] The family Felidae is believed to have originated in Asia approximately 11 million years ago. In Biological classification, family ( Latin Felidae is the biological family of the cats a member of this family is called a felid. Taxonomic research on felids remains partial and much of what is known about their evolutionary history is based on mitochondrial DNA analysis,^[7] as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record,^[8] and there are significant confidence intervals with suggested dates. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. In Statistics, a confidence interval (CI is an interval estimate of a Population parameter.

In the latest genomic study of Felidae, the common ancestor of today's Leopardus, Lynx, Puma, Prionailurus, and Felis lineages migrated across the Bering land bridge into the Americas approximately 8 to 8. Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic The Genus Leopardus consists of small spotted cats mostly native to Central and South America. A lynx is any of four medium-sized wild cats. All are members of the Genus Lynx, but there is considerable confusion about the best way to classify Puma is a Felidae genus that contains the Cougar (also known as the Puma, among other names and the Jaguarundi. Prionailurus is a Genus comprised of a number of Asian small Cats Cats usually considered to be members of this genus are Felis is a Genus of cats in the family Felidae. The genus is composed of these species Chinese Mountain Cat, Felis The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia 5 million years (Ma) ago. Annum is one form of the Latin noun meaning Year, not a form normally used for derivatives in modern languages the accusative singular The lineages subsequently diverged in that order. ^[8] North American felids then invaded South America 3 Ma ago as part of the Great American Interchange, following formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The Great American Interchange was an important paleozoogeographic event in which land and freshwater fauna migrated from North America via Central The Isthmus of Panama, also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien, is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific The cougar was originally thought to belong in Felis, the genus which includes the domestic cat, but it is now placed in Puma along with the jaguarundi, a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight. WikipediaManual of Style (spelling, articles should conform to one overall spelling style of English typically the one most linked to the article topic (if it is geographic The jaguarundi ( Puma yagouaroundi) is a medium-sized Mexican, Central and South American wild cat: average length 65 cm (30 inches

Studies have indicated that the cougar and jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern cheetah of Africa and western Asia,^[8][9] but the relationship is unresolved. The cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus) is an atypical member of the cat family ( Felidae) that is unique in its speed while lacking climbing abilities It has been suggested that the cheetah lineage diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas (see American cheetah) and migrated back to Asia and Africa,^[8][9] while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself. The American cheetahs (genus Miracinonyx) were at least two species of feline, morphologically similar to the modern Cheetah, ^[10] The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear.

Recent studies have demonstrated a high level of genetic similarity among the North American cougar populations, suggesting that they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group. Culver et al. suggest that the original North American population of Puma concolor was extirpated during the Pleistocene extinctions some 10,000 years ago, when other large mammals such as Smilodon also disappeared. Local extinction is where a Species (or other Taxon) ceases to exist in the chosen area of study but still exists elsewhere Smilodon (ˈsmаɪləˌdɒn sometimes called saber-toothed tiger, is an extinct Genus of large machairodontine Saber-toothed North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars. ^[9]

Subspecies

Until the late 1990s, as many as 32 subspecies were recorded; however, a recent genetic study of mitochondrial DNA^[9] found that many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Following the research, the canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd edition) recognizes six subspecies, five of which are solely found in Latin America:^[1]

Argentine puma (Puma concolor cabrerae) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma (Marcelli, 1922);

Costa Rican Cougar (Puma concolor costaricensis)

Eastern South American cougar (Puma concolor anthonyi) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor (Pelzeln, 1883), greeni and nigra;

North American Cougar (Puma concolor couguar) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms arundivaga, aztecus, browni, californica, coryi, floridana, hippolestes, improcera, kaibabensis, mayensis, missoulensis, olympus, oregonensis, schorgeri, stanleyana, vancouverensis and youngi;

Northern South American cougar (Puma concolor concolor) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi, incarum, osgoodi, soasoaranna, soderstromii, sucuacuara and wavula;

Southern South American puma (Puma concolor puma) 

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor (Gay, 1847), patagonica, pearsoni and puma (Trouessart, 1904)

The status of the Florida panther, here collapsed into the North American cougar, remains uncertain. Mammal Species of the World, now in its 3rd edition is a standard reference work in Zoology giving descriptions and bibliographic data for the known species of mammals The Costa Rican Cougar, Puma concolor costaricensis, is an endangered subspecies of feline. The North American Cougar ( Puma concolor couguar) is the Cougar subspecies once commonly found in eastern North America and still prevalent in the western half It is still regularly listed as subspecies Puma concolor coryi in research works, including those directly concerned with its conservation. ^[11] Culver et al. themselves noted microsatellite variation in the Florida panther, possibly due to inbreeding;^[9] responding to the research, one conservation team suggests "the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the results of Culver et al. Microsatellites, or Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs are polymorphic loci present in nuclear and organellar DNA that consist of repeating and the proposed change in taxonomy is not resolved at this time. "^[12]

Biology and behavior

Physical characteristics

Cougars are slender and agile cats. Adults stand about 60 to 80 cm (2. 0 to 2. 7 ft) tall at the shoulders. The length of adult males is around 2. 4 m (8 ft) long nose to tail, with overall ranges between 1. 5 and 2. 75 meters (5 and 9 ft) nose to tail suggested for the species in general. ^[13][14] Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72 kilograms (115 to 160 pounds). In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg (260 lb). Female average weight is between 34 and 48 kg (75 and 105 lb). ^[15] Cougar size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles. The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the Earth's polar regions are the areas of the globe surrounding the poles also known as frigid zones. ^[3]

The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. It has five retractable claws on its forepaws (one a dewclaw) and four on its hind paws. A dewclaw is a vestigial digit of the Foot of many Mammals Birds and Reptiles (including some extinct orders like certain The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey. ^[16]

Cougars can be as large as jaguars, but are less muscled and powerful; where their ranges overlap, the cougar tends to be smaller than average. The cougar is on average heavier than the leopard. Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the "big cats," as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera. The term big cat is used to distinguish the larger cat species from smaller ones The larynx (plural larynges) colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the Neck of Mammals involved in protection of the The hyoid bone ( lingual bone) (Latin os hyoideum) is a Bone in the Neck, and is the only bone in the human skeleton not articulated to any ^[17] Like domestic cats, cougars vocalize low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles. They are well known for their screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals. ^[18]

Cougar coloring is plain (hence the Latin concolor) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails;^[15] juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks. ^[14] Despite anecdotes to the contrary, all-black coloring (melanism) has never been documented in cougars. Melanism μέλας is an increased amount of black or nearly black Pigmentation (as of Skin, Feathers or Hair) of an organism resulting from ^[19] The term "black panther" is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species, particularly jaguars and leopards. A black panther is a black ( melanistic) color variant of one of several Species of larger cat which are often known by the term panther. ^[20]

Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family. ^[15] This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5. 4 m (18 ft) is reported for the cougar. ^[21] Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft). The cougar can run as fast as 55 km/h (35 mph),^[22] but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. The Canidae (ˈkænədiː ′kanə′dē family is a part of the order Carnivora within the Mammals (Class Mammalia Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim. ^[23]

Hunting and diet

A successful generalist predator, the cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates. A generalist species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources (for example a Heterotroph Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually Like all cats, it is an obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting Its most important prey species are various deer species, particularly in North America; mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, and even the large moose are taken by the cat. The mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) is a Deer whose habitat is in the western half of North America. The White-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) also known as the Virginia deer, or simply as the whitetail, is a medium-sized Deer found throughout The elk, or wapiti ( Cervus canadensis) is one of the largest Species of Deer in the world and one of the largest Mammals in The moose (North America or elk (Europe Alces alces, is the largest extant Species in the Deer family. Other species such as Bighorn Sheep, horses, and domestic livestock such as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas. A survey of North America research found 68% of prey items were ungulates, especially deer. Only the Florida Panther showed variation, often preferring feral hogs and armadillos. Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Armadillos are small Placental Mammals known for having a leathery armor shell ^[3] Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed elk followed by mule deer were the cougar's primary targets; the prey base is shared with the park's gray wolves, with whom the cougar competes for resources. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora ^[24] Another study on winter kills (November–April) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99% of the cougar diet. Alberta (ælˈbɝtə is one of Canada's prairie provinces. It became a province on September 1 1905 Learned, individual prey recognition was observed, as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep, while others relied heavily on the species. Bighorn Sheep ( Ovis canadensis) is a species of sheep in North America and Siberia with large horns which can weigh up to. ^[25]

In the Central and South American cougar range, the ratio of deer in the diet declines. Small to mid-size mammals are preferred, including large rodents such as the capybara. Capybara ( Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) also known as capibara, chigüire in Venezuela chigüiro, carpincho Ungulates accounted for only 35% of prey items in one survey, approximately half that of North America. Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items. ^[3] Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice, porcupine, and hares. A mouse (plural mice) is a small Animal that belongs to one Porcupines are Rodents with a coat of sharp spines or quills that defend them from predators Hares and jackrabbits are Leporids belonging to the Genus Lepus. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in North America. ^[3]

Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. Ambush predators or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or cunning not by speed or necessarily by strength It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground. ^[16]

Reproduction and lifecycle

Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half and three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive life;^[26] the period can be as short as one year. For other meanings of litter see Litter (disambiguation. A litter is the offspring at one birth of Animals from the same mother and usually ^[15] Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Oestrus is also the biological genus name of the gadfly. The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle; derived from Latin The gestation period in a Viviparous Animal is the length of its Gestation. ^[15] Females are sometimes reported as monogamous,^[22] but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. Polygyny (which comes from neo- Greek: πολύ poly "many" + γυνή gyny "woman" is a specific form of Polygamy, ^[27] Copulation is brief but frequent.

Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as grizzly bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own. ^[26] Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter. ^[15]

Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high morbidity amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars ("intraspecific" conflict). ^[26] Research in New Mexico has shown that "males dispersed significantly farther than females, were more likely to traverse large expanses of non-cougar habitat, and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. "^[28]

Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island. Vancouver Island is a large Island in British Columbia, Canada, one of several North American regions named after George Vancouver, the British ^[15] Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity. Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other cougars, starvation, accidents, and, where allowed, human hunting. Feline immunodeficiency virus, an endemic AIDS-like disease in cats, is well-adapted to the cougar. Feline immunodeficiency virus ( FIV) occasionally referred to as Feline or Cat AIDS is a Lentivirus that affects domesticated ^[29]

Social structure and home range

Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk. Crepuscular is a term used to describe animals that are primarily active during Twilight, hence at Dawn and at Dusk.

Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly. Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 square kilometers (58 to 386 sq mi) with female ranges half the size. Canadian Geographic is the bimonthly magazine of the Royal Canadian Geographical Society (RCGS Square Kilometre ( US spelling square kilometer) symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. ^[22] Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km² (10 sq mi) but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km² (500 sq mi) for males. ^[26] In the United States, very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains, in excess of 775 km² (300 sq mi). Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. The Black Hills ( Pahá Sápa in Lakota, Moˀȯhta-voˀhonáaeva in Cheyenne) are a small isolated Mountain range rising from the The Great Plains are the broad expanse of Prairie and Steppe which lie east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada ^[30] Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but, at least where studied, not with those of other males, which serves to reduce conflict between cougars. Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other. Scrape marks, urine, and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates. Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra. Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory. ^[23]

Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance. ^[26] One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km² (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance. The San Andres Mountains are a Mountain range in the southwestern U ^[28] Research has shown cougar abundances from 0. 5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 100 km² (38 sq mi). ^[15]

Because males disperse further than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a sub-adult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father. ^[30] When males encounter each other, they hiss and spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down. ^[27] Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals. ^[31]

Ecology

Distribution and habitat

The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas. Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude, from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Yukon (ˈjuːkɒn is the westernmost and smallest of Canada's three territories. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. It is one of only three cat species, along with the bobcat and Canadian lynx, native to Canada. The Bobcat ( Lynx rufus) is a North American Mammal of the cat family Felidae. The Canadian lynx ( Lynx canadensis) is a North American Mammal of the cat family Felidae. ^[16] Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: it is found in all forest types as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. Studies show that the Cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in open areas. ^[2] Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush. ^[23]

The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range with the exception of Florida in the two centuries after European colonization and faced grave threats in the remainder. Local extinction is where a Species (or other Taxon) ceases to exist in the chosen area of study but still exists elsewhere Currently, it ranges across most western American states, the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, and the Canadian Yukon Territory. Alberta (ælˈbɝtə is one of Canada's prairie provinces. It became a province on September 1 1905 British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C Yukon (ˈjuːkɒn is the westernmost and smallest of Canada's three territories. There have been widely-debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America. ^[32] DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America,^[33] while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports, from the mid-western Great Plains through to Eastern Canada. The Great Plains are the broad expanse of Prairie and Steppe which lie east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada Eastern Canada (also the Eastern provinces) is generally considered to be the region of Canada east of Manitoba, consisting of the following provinces ^[34] The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther, which is critically endangered. The Florida panther is a critically endangered representative of Cougar ( Puma concolor) that lives in the low pinelands palm forests and

South of the Rio Grande, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) lists the cat in every Central and South American country except Costa Rica and Panama. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. ^[2] While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America, much less is known about the cat in its southern range. ^[35]

The cougar's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50,000 by the IUCN, with a declining trend. ^[2] U. S. state-level statistics are often more optimistic, suggesting cougar populations have rebounded. In Oregon, a healthy population of 5,000 was reported in 2006, exceeding a target of 3,000. ^[36] California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested, between 4,000 and 6,000. ^[37]

Ecological role

Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild. The cat is not, however, the apex predator throughout much of its range. In its northern range, the cougar interacts with other powerful predators such as the brown bear and gray wolf. The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) is an Omnivorous Mammal of the family Ursidae, distributed across much of northern Eurasia and In the south, the cougar must compete with the larger jaguar. In Florida it encounters the American alligator. The American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, (known colloquially as simply gator) is one of the two living Species of Alligator, a genus

The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter-predator interaction in North America. Of the three large predators, the massive brown bear appears dominant, often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their kills. One study found that brown or black bears visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks, usurping 10% of carcasses. The American Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) is the most common Bear Species native to North America. ^[39]

The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey, especially in winter. While individually more powerful than the gray wolf, a solitary cougar may be dominated by the pack structure of the canines. Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat. One report describes a large pack of fourteen wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens. Conversely, lone wolves are at a disadvantage, and have been reported killed by cougars. ^[40] Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities, and disrupting the feline's behavior. Preliminary research in Yellowstone, for instance, has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves. ^[41] One researcher in Oregon notes: "When there is a pack around, cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens … A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf, but the pack phenomenon changes the table. "^[42] Both species, meanwhile, are capable of killing mid-sized predators such as bobcats and coyotes and tend to suppress their numbers. The Bobcat ( Lynx rufus) is a North American Mammal of the cat family Felidae. The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora ^[24]

In the southern portion of its range, the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory. ^[43] The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, reducing the cougar's size. ^[3] Of the two felines, the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey. ^[44]

As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain, the cougar impacts the population of prey species. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region. For example, a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer, a favored cougar prey, was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed-upon white-tailed deer was increasing. ^[45] The Vancouver Island Marmot, an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population, has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation. The Vancouver Island marmot ( Marmota vancouverensis) is found only in the high mountainous regions of Vancouver Island, in British Columbia, Canada ^[46]

Conservation status

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) currently lists the cougar as a "near threatened" species. Near Threatened ( NT) is a Conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa which may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future although It has shifted the cougar's status from "least concern," while leaving open the possibility that it may be raised to "vulnerable" when greater data on the cat's distribution becomes available. A vulnerable species is a Species which is likely to become endangered unless the circumstances threatening its survival and reproduction improve ^[2] The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),^[47] rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts. CITES (the United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments drafted

East of the Mississippi, the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther. Mississippi ( is a state located in the Deep South of the United States The Florida panther is a critically endangered representative of Cougar ( Puma concolor) that lives in the low pinelands palm forests and The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recognizes both an Eastern cougar and the Florida panther, affording protection under the Endangered Species Act. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 ( et seq or ESA is the most wide-ranging of the dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s ^[48][49] Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American Cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,^[1] while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists. The North American Cougar ( Puma concolor couguar) is the Cougar subspecies once commonly found in eastern North America and still prevalent in the western half ^[11] The most recent documented count for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, reported by recovery agencies in 2003. ^[50]

The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range. As of 1996, cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela, and Uruguay. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only Suriname ( Dutch: Suriname; Sranan Tongo: Sranan) officially the Republic of Suriname (traditionally spelled Surinam by Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America (Costa Rica and Panama are not listed as current range countries by the IUCN. ) The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Guyana. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Guyana (ɡaɪˈænə or /ɡiːˈɑːnə/ officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and previously known as British Guiana, is the only Nation state ^[15] Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada,although they are protected from all hunting in the Yukon. ; it is permitted in every U. S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs, until the animal is 'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots it from the tree at close range. The Cougar cannot be legally killed in California except under very specific circumstances, such as when an individual is declared a public safety threat. ^[37]

Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal, degradation and fragmentation of its habitat, and depletion of its prey base. Habitat corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations. A wildlife corridor or green corridor is a strip of habitat connecting wildlife populations separated by human activities (such as roads development or logging Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km² (850 sq mi) or more. As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence, foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors. ^[51]

Attacks on humans

Due to the growth of urban areas, cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Attacks on humans are rare, as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey. ^[4] Attacks on people, livestock, and pets may occur when the cat habituates to humans. See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral There have been 108 confirmed attacks on humans with twenty fatalities in North America since 1890, fifty of the incidents having occurred since 1991. ^[52][53] The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 (after just three from 1890 to 1985), including three fatalities. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. ^[37] Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer, when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory. ^[38]

As with many predators, a cougar may attack if cornered, if a fleeing human being stimulates its instinct to chase, or if a person "plays dead". Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact, loud but calm shouting, and any other action to appear larger and more menacing, may make the animal retreat. Fighting back with sticks and rocks, or even bare hands, is often effective in spurring an attacking cougar to disengage. ^[4][38]

When the cougar does attack, it usually employs its characteristic neck bite, attempting to position its teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord. A vertebra (plural vertebrae) is an individual Irregular bone in the spinal or Vertebral column ( aka ischis a flexuous and flexible column The spinal cord is a long thin tubular bundle of Nerves that is an extension of the Central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected Neck, head, and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal. ^[4] Children are at greatest risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64% of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children. The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia, particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense. British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C Vancouver Island is a large Island in British Columbia, Canada, one of several North American regions named after George Vancouver, the British ^[53]

In mythology and culture

The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar, and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos The Moche people represented the puma often in their ceramics. The Moche civilization (alternately the Mochica culture Early Chimu Pre-Chimu Proto-Chimu etc ^[54] The sky and thunder god of the Inca, Viracocha, has been associated with the animal. In Inca mythology, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, commonly known today as Con-Tici Viracocha or simply Viracocha, was the creator of Civilization ^[55]

In North America, mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hotcâk language ("Ho-Chunk" or "Winnebago") of Wisconsin and Illinois^[56] and the Cheyenne, amongst others. The Winnebago language is the language of Ho Chunk (or Winnebago tribe of Native Americans in the United States. Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States The State of Illinois ( roughly ill-i-NOY is a state of the United States of America, the 21st to be admitted to the Union. Cheyenne are a Native American nation of the Great Plains. The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two united tribes, the Só'taa'e (more commonly To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona, the wail of the Cougar was harbinger of death. The Hualapai (also spelled Walapai) are a tribe of Native Americans who live in the mountains of northwestern Arizona, United States. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. ^[57]

The cougar continues to be a symbol of strength and stealth. From combat helicopters, motor vehicles (see Ford/Mercury Cougar and Ford Puma) to athletic shoes, both "Cougar" and "Puma" are widely used as brand names. The Eurocopter AS 532 Cougar is a twin-engined medium-weight multipurpose Helicopter. The Mercury Cougar was an Automobile sold under the Mercury brand of the Ford Motor Company 's Lincoln-Mercury Division The Ford Puma was a small Coupé produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1997 to 2001 for sale in Europe. Puma AG Rudolf Dassler Sport ( Puma) ( is a large German-based Multinational company that produces high-end Athletic shoes and other sportswear A brand is a collection of Images and ideas representing an economic producer more specifically it refers to the descriptive verbal attributes and concrete symbols such as a Various sports teams have also adopted the names, including the Argentina national rugby union team as well as US universities, Brigham Young University and Washington State University. The Argentina national rugby team, nicknamed Los Pumas, represents Argentina in international Rugby union matches Washington State University ( WSU) is an American public Research university in Pullman, Washington. Many places, such as Cougar Mountain, are also named after their association with cougars. The lowest and westernmost of the Issaquah Alps, Cougar Mountain is a zone of highlands in suburban Seattle Washington, rising abruptly from southeast of the intersection

See also

• List of fatal cougar attacks in North America by decade
• Pumapard

References

Other resources

• Baron, David (2004). The Beast in the Garden: A Modern Parable of Man and Nature. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0393058077.  
• Kobalenko, Jerry (1997). Forest Cats of North America. Buffalo, New York: Island Press. ISBN 1-55209-174-4.  
• Logan, Ken; Linda Sweanor (2001). Desert Puma: Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation of an Enduring Carnivore. Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-866-4.  

External links

• Description of a Cougar attack
• Cougar Facts and Photos - NatureMapping Program
• No Place for Predators? Liza Gross, PLoS Biology, explains how Washington State wildlife officials implemented a hunting policy, in response to a state measure passed to protect wildlife, that led to the highest rates of human-caused cougar mortality since the height of the bounty era

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