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Cosmology, from the Greek: κοσμολογία (cosmologia, κόσμος (cosmos) order + λογος (logos) word, reason, plan) is the quantitative (usually mathematical) study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly In its most general sense a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), study of the Universe has a long history involving science, philosophy, esotericism, and religion. Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf; also known as Wolfius) baron ( 24 January 1679 - 9 April 1754) was a German Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos

Contents

Disciplines

In recent times, physics and astrophysics have come to play a central role in shaping what is now known as physical cosmology by bringing observations and mathematical tools to analyze the universe as a whole: in other words, in the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scale and at the earliest moments, is generally understood to begin with the big bang (possibly combined with cosmic inflation) - an expansion of space from which the Universe itself is thought to have emerged ~13. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. In Physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent Universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i 7±0. 2×109 ( 13.7 billion) years ago[1] . From its violent beginnings and until its various speculative ends, cosmologists propose that the history of the Universe has been governed entirely by physical laws. The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in Physical cosmology. A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i

Between the domains of religion and science, stands the philosophical perspective of metaphysical cosmology. The relationship between religion and science has long held interest for scholars particularly in the Philosophy of science, the Philosophy of religion, and Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language See Cosmology (disambiguation. Cosmology is the branch of Philosophy and Metaphysics that deals with the World This ancient field of study seeks to draw intuitive conclusions about the nature of the universe, man, god and/or their relationships based on the extension of some set of presumed facts borrowed from spiritual experience and/or observation.

But metaphysical cosmology has also been observed as the placing of man in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is demonstrated by the observation made by Marcus Aurelius of a man's place in that relationship: " “He who does not know what the world is does not know where he is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is. ” This is the purpose of the ancient metaphysical cosmology. However, Stoicism rejected Aristotle's theory of universals as being "in the things themselves," calling them "figments of the mind. " Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[2] adopting the concept of universals as being "concepts," and therefore of the mind, and therefore controllable by free will. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Thus, we get the analysis of Aurelius' that the nature of the universe is not from "intuition," but from a free-will, conceptual understanding of the nature of the universe.

Cosmology is often an important aspect of the creation myths of religions that seek to explain the existence and nature of reality. A creation myth is a supernatural mytho-[[religion religious]] story or explanation that describes the beginnings of humanity, Earth, life, and A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" In some cases, views about the creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology) of the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of religious cosmology for understanding humanity's role in the universe. This article discusses scientific theories of creation (cosmogony Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology See Cosmology (disambiguation. Religious cosmologies are ways of explaining the history and evolution of the Universe based

A more contemporary distinction between religion and philosophy, esoteric cosmology is distinguished from religion in its less tradition-bound construction and reliance on modern "intellectual understanding" rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on spirituality as a formative concept. Esoteric cosmology is Cosmology that is an intrinsic part of an esoteric or occult system of thought Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality

There are many historical cosmologies:

“…the universe itself acts on us as a random, inefficient, and yet in the long run effective, teaching machine. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy …our way of looking at the universe has gradually evolved through a natural selection of ideas. ” —Steven Weinberg [3]

Historical Cosmologies

Main article: Timeline of cosmology

The following table outlines the significant historical cosmologies in chronological order. Steven Weinberg (born May 3, 1933) is an American Physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for his contributions with Abdus Salam This timeline of cosmological theories and discoveries is a chronological catalog of the evolution of humankind's understanding of the Cosmos over the last two-plus

Historical descriptions of the cosmos

NAME Author & Date Classification REMARKS
Brahmanda Ancient Hindu Rig-Veda treatise on cosmology Cyclical or oscillating. Brahmanda Purana, one of the major eighteen Puranas, a Hindu religious text is considered as the eighteenth Purana in almost all the lists of the Puranas and it Infinite in time. The universe is a cosmic egg that cycles between expansion and total collapse. The cosmic egg is an ancient concept resurrected by modern Science in the 1930s and explored by theoreticians during the following two decades It expanded from a concentrated form —a point called a Bindu. Bindu is a Sanskrit term meaning "point" or "dot" The universe, as a living entity, is bound to the perpetual cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
Atomist universe Anaxagoras (500-428 B. In Natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small indestructible building blocks - Atoms Or stated in Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological C. ) & later Epicurus Infinite in extent The universe contains only two things: an infinite number of tiny seeds, or atoms, and the void of infinite extent. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny All atoms are made of the same substance, but differ in size and shape. Objects are formed from atom aggregations and decay back into atoms. Incorporates Leucippus’ principle of causality: ”nothing happens at random; everything happens out of reason and necessity. Leucippus or Leukippos ( Greek, first half of 5th century BC was among the earliest philosophers of Atomism, the idea that everything is composed entirely ” The universe was not ruled by gods. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity.
Stoic universe Stoics 3rd & 4th c. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC B. C. Island universe The cosmos is finite and surrounded by an infinite void. A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter It is in a state of flux, as it pulsates in size and periodically passes through upheavals and conflagrations.
Aristotelian universe Aristotle (384-322 B. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. C. ) Geocentric, static, steady state, finite Spherical earth is surrounded by concentric celestial spheres. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " Universe exists unchanged throughout eternity. Contains a 5th element called aether (later known as quintessence).
Aristarchean universe Aristarchus of Samos (circa 280 B. C. ) Heliocentric Earth rotates daily on its axis and revolves annually about the sun in a circular orbit. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Sphere of fixed stars is centered about the sun.
Ptolemaic model (based on the Aristotelian universe) Claudius Ptolemaeus

(2nd century A. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca D. )

 Geocentric Universe orbits about a stationary Earth. Planets move in circular epicycles, each having a center that moved in a larger circular orbit (called an eccentric or a deferent) around a center-point near the Earth. In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in The use of equants added another level of complexity and allowed astronomers to predict the positions of the planets. The most successful universe model of all time, using the criterion of longevity. Almagest (the Great System). Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i
Copernican universe Nicolaus Copernicus 1543 Heliocentric The ancient Aristarchean universe rediscovered. In Cosmology, the Copernican principle, named after Nicolaus Copernicus, states the Earth is not in a central specially favoured position

Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.

Static Newtonian Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Static (evolving), steady state, infinite Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The idea of a static universe or "Einstein's universe" is one which demands that space is not expanding nor contracting but rather is dynamically stable Matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed. Gravitationally balanced but UNSTABLE.
Cartesian Vortex universe René Descartes

17th century

 Static (evolving), steady state, infinite A system of huge swirling whirlpools of aethereal or fine matter produces what we would call gravitational effects. His vacuum was not empty. All space was filled with matter that swirled around in large and small vortices.
Hierarchical universe Immanuel Kant, Johann Lambert 1700s Static (evolving), steady state, infinite Matter is clustered on ever larger scales of hierarchy. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Johann Heinrich Lambert ( August 26, 1728 &ndash September 25 1777) was a Swiss Mathematician, Physicist and Matter is endlessly being recycled.
Einstein Universe with a cosmological constant Albert Einstein 1917 Static (nominally). The idea of a static universe or "Einstein's universe" is one which demands that space is not expanding nor contracting but rather is dynamically stable Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Bounded (finite) “Matter without motion. ” Contains uniformly distributed matter. Uniformly curved spherical space; based on Riemann’s hypersphere. Curvature is set equal to Λ. In effect Λ is equivalent to a repulsive force which counteracts gravity. UNSTABLE.
De Sitter universe Willem de Sitter 1917 Expanding flat space. A de Sitter universe is a solution to Einstein 's field equations of General Relativity which is named after Willem de Sitter. Willem de Sitter ( May 6 1872 &ndash November 20 1934) was a Dutch mathematician physicist and astronomer The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i The shape of the Universe is an informal name for a subject of investigation within Physical cosmology which describes the Geometry of the Universe

Steady state. Λ > 0

 “Motion without matter. ” Only apparently static. Based on Einstein’s General Relativity. General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of Gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916 Space expands with constant acceleration. The accelerating universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an accelerated rate Scale factor (radius of universe) increases exponentially, i. The scale factor, parameter of Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker model is a function of time which represents the relative expansion of the Universe e. constant inflation. In Physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent Universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that
MacMillan William MacMillan 1920s Static &

steady state

 New matter is created from radiation. William "Bill" MacMillan (born March 7, 1943 in Charlottetown Prince Edward Island) was a player and coach in the National Hockey League. Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy Starlight is perpetually recycled into new matter particles.
Friedmann universe of spherical space Alexander Friedmann 1922 Spherical expanding space. The Friedmann equations are a set of Equations in cosmology that govern the expansion of space in homogeneous and isotropic models Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman or Friedmann (Александр Александрович Фридман ( June 16 1888, Saint Petersburg, Imperial

k= +1 ; no Λ

 Positive curvature. Curvature constant k = +1

Expands then recollapses. The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i In Physical cosmology, the Big Crunch is one possible scenario for the Ultimate fate of the universe, in which the Metric expansion of space eventually Spatially closed (finite). The shape of the Universe is an informal name for a subject of investigation within Physical cosmology which describes the Geometry of the Universe

Friedmann universe of hyperbolic space Alexander Friedmann 1924 Hyperbolic expanding space. The Friedmann equations are a set of Equations in cosmology that govern the expansion of space in homogeneous and isotropic models Alexander Alexandrovich Friedman or Friedmann (Александр Александрович Фридман ( June 16 1888, Saint Petersburg, Imperial

k= -1 ; no Λ

 Negative curvature. The shape of the Universe is an informal name for a subject of investigation within Physical cosmology which describes the Geometry of the Universe Said to be infinite (but ambiguous). Unbounded. Expands forever.
Dirac large numbers hypothesis Paul Dirac 1930s Expanding Demands a large variation in G, which decreases with time. The Dirac large numbers hypothesis (LNH refers to an observation made by Paul Dirac in 1937 relating ratios of size scales in the Universe to that of force scales Gravity weakens as universe evolves.
Friedmann zero-curvature, aka the Einstein-DeSitter universe Einstein & DeSitter 1932 Expanding flat space.

k= 0 ; Λ = 0 Critical density

 Curvature constant k = 0. Said to be infinite (but ambiguous). ‘Unbounded cosmos of limited extent. ’ Expands forever. ‘Simplest’ of all known universes. Named after but not considered by Friedmann. Has a deceleration term q =½ which means that its expansion rate slows down. The deceleration parameter q in cosmology is a Dimensionless measure of the cosmic acceleration of the expansion of the universe
Georges Lemaître

the original Big Bang. Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( July 17, 1894 &ndash June 20, 1966) was a Belgian Roman Catholic Priest The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. aka Friedmann-Lemaître Model

 Georges Lemaître 1927-29 Expansion

Λ > 0 Λ > |Gravity|

 Λ is positive and has a magnitude greater than Gravity. Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( July 17, 1894 &ndash June 20, 1966) was a Belgian Roman Catholic Priest Universe has initial high density state (‘primeval atom’). Followed by a two stage expansion. Λ is used to destabilize the universe. (Lemaître is considered to be the father of the big bang model. )
Oscillating universe

(aka Friedmann-Einstein; was latter’s 1st choice after rejecting his own 1917 model)

 Favored by Friedmann

1920s

 Expanding and contracting in cycles Time is endless and beginningless; thus avoids the beginning-of-time paradox. The oscillatory universe is a Cosmological model, originally derived by Alexander Friedman in 1922 investigated briefly by Einstein in 1930 and critiqued Perpetual cycles of big bang followed by big crunch.
Eddington Arthur Eddington 1930 first Static

then Expands

 Static Einstein 1917 universe with its instability disturbed into expansion mode; with relentless matter dilution becomes a DeSitter universe. Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, OM (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944 was an English Astrophysicist of the early 20th century Λ dominates gravity.
Milne universe of kinematic relativity Edward Milne, 1933, 1935;

William H. McCrea, 1930s

 Kinematic expansion with NO space expansion Rejects general relativity and the expanding space paradigm. The Milne model was a special relativistic cosmological model proposed by Edward Arthur Milne. Edward Milne may refer to Edward Arthur Milne (1896&ndash1950 British mathematician and astrophysicist Eddie Milne (1915&ndash1983 Sir William Hunter McCrea (13 December 1904 &ndash April 25 1999 was an English Astronomer and Mathematician. Gravity not included as initial assumption. Obeys cosmological principle & rules of special relativity. Special relativity (SR (also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the Physical theory of Measurement in Inertial The Milne expanding universe consists of a finite spherical cloud of particles (or galaxies) that expands WITHIN flat space which is infinite and otherwise empty. It has a center and a cosmic edge (the surface of the particle cloud) which expands at light speed. His explanation of gravity was elaborate and unconvincing. For instance, his universe has an infinite number of particles, hence infinite mass, within a finite cosmic volume.
Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker class of models Howard Robertson, Arthur Walker, 1935 Uniformly expanding Class of universes that are homogenous and isotropic. Howard Robertson my refer to Howard Percy Robertson (1903&ndash1961 American mathematician Howard W There are several people named Arthur Walker: Arthur Henry Walker (1833-1878 an English cricketer Spacetime separates into uniformly curved space and cosmic time common to all comoving observers. The formulation system is now known as the FLRW or Robertson-Walker metrics of cosmic time and curved space.
Steady-state expanding (Bondi & Gold) Herman Bondi, Thomas Gold 1948 Expanding, steady state, infinite Matter creation rate maintains constant density. In cosmology, the Steady State theory (also known as the Infinite Universe theory or continuous creation) is a model developed in 1948 by Fred Sir Hermann Bondi, KCB, FRS ( 1 November 1919 &ndash 10 September 2005) was an Anglo - Austrian Thomas Gold ( May 22, 1920 &ndash June 22, 2004) was an Austrian born Astrophysicist, a professor of Astronomy Continuous creation out of nothing from nowhere. Exponential expansion. Deceleration term q = -1.
Steady-state expanding (Hoyle) Fred Hoyle 1948 Expanding, steady state; but unstable Matter creation rate maintains constant density. Sir Fred Hoyle FRS ( 24 June, 1915  &ndash 20 August, 2001) was an English Astronomer primarily But since matter creation rate must be exactly balanced with the space expansion rate the system is unstable.
Ambiplasma Hannes Alfvén 1965 Oskar Klein Cellular universe, expanding by means of matter-antimatter annihilation Based on the concept of plasma cosmology. Plasma cosmology is a Non-standard cosmology generally attributed to Nobel Prize winner Hannes Alfvén in the 1960s that attempts to explain the development Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén ( May 30, 1908; Norrköping, Sweden &ndash April 2, 1995; Djursholm, Sweden Oskar Benjamin Klein ( September 15 1894 - February 5 1977) was a Swedish theoretical Physicist. Plasma cosmology is a Non-standard cosmology generally attributed to Nobel Prize winner Hannes Alfvén in the 1960s that attempts to explain the development The universe is viewed as meta-galaxies divided by double layers —hence its bubble-like nature. A double layer is a Structure in a plasma and consists of two parallel layers with opposite electrical charge Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic matter-antimatter annihilations keep the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting. In Particle physics and Quantum chemistry, antimatter is the extension of the concept of the Antiparticle to Matter, where antimatter is composed Annihilation is defined as "total destruction" or "complete obliteration" of an object having its root in the Latin nihil (nothing
Brans-Dicke Carl H. In Theoretical physics, the Brans-Dicke theory of gravitation (sometimes called the Jordan-Brans-Dicke theory) is a theoretical framework to explain Gravitation Brans; Robert H. Dicke Expanding Based on Mach’s principle. In Theoretical physics, particularly in discussions of gravitation theories, Mach's principle (or Mach's conjecture is the name given by Einstein to a G varies with time as universe expands. “But nobody is quite sure what Mach’s principle actually means. ”
Cosmic inflation Alan Guth 1980 Big Bang with modification to solve horizon problem and flatness problem. In Physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent Universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that Alan Harvey Guth (born February 27, 1947) is a Theoretical physicist and Cosmologist. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. The horizon problem is a problem with the standard cosmological model of the Big Bang which was identified in the 1970s The flatness problem is a cosmological Fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model i Based on the concept of hot inflation. The universe is viewed as a multiple quantum flux —hence its bubble-like nature. Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic expansion kept the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting.
Eternal Inflation (a multiple universe model) Andreï Linde 1983 Big Bang with cosmic inflation A multiverse, based on the concept of cold inflation, in which inflationary events occur at random each with independent initial conditions; some expand into bubble universes supposedly like our entire cosmos. The Chaotic Inflation theory is a variety of the Inflationary universe model which is itself an outgrowth (or extension of the Big bang theory Andrei Dmitriyevich Linde (b March 2, 1948 in Moscow, USSR) is a Russian-American theoretical Physicist and Professor In Physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent Universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that The multiverse (or meta-universe) is the hypothetical set of multiple possible Universes (including our universe that together comprise all of Reality. Bubbles nucleate in a spacetime foam.
Cyclic model Paul Steinhardt; Neil Turok 2002 Expanding and contracting in cycles; M theory. Cyclic model refers to several Cosmological models in which the Universe follows infinite self-sustaining cycles (for example an Eternity of Big Paul J Steinhardt is the Albert Einstein Professor of Science at Princeton University and a Professor of Theoretical physics. Neil Geoffrey Turok holds the Chair of Mathematical Physics (1967 at Cambridge University. In Theoretical physics, M-theory is a new limit of String theory in which 11 dimensions of Spacetime may be identified Two parallel orbifold planes or M-branes collide periodically in a higher dimensional space. In the mathematical disciplines of Topology and Geometric group theory, an orbifold (for "orbit-manifold" is a generalization of a Manifold. In Theoretical physics, a membrane, brane, or p -brane is a spatially extended mathematical concept that appears in String theory With quintessence or dark energy

Table Notes: the term “static” simply means not expanding and not contracting. In Physics, quintessence is a hypothetical form of Dark energy postulated as an explanation of observations of an Accelerating universe. In Physical cosmology, dark energy is a hypothetical exotic form of Energy that permeates all of space and tends to increase the rate of expansion of the universe Symbol G represents Newton’s gravitational constant; Λ (Lambda) is the cosmological constant. The gravitational constant, denoted G, is a Physical constant involved in the calculation of the gravitational attraction between objects with mass In Physical cosmology, the cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter Lambda: Λ was proposed by Albert Einstein as a modification

Physical cosmology

Main article: Physical cosmology

Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the Universe. Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its It also includes the study of the nature of the Universe on its very largest scales. In its earliest form it was what is now known as celestial mechanics, the study of the heavens. Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " The Greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca In particular, the geocentric Ptolemaic system was the accepted theory to explain the motion of the heavens until Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei proposed a heliocentric system in the 16th century. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. This is known as one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology. The notion of epistemological rupture was introduced by Gaston Bachelard.

With Isaac Newton and the 1687 publication of Principia Mathematica, the problem of the motion of the heavens was finally solved. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia Newton provided a physical mechanism for Kepler's laws and his law of universal gravitation allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interaction between the planets, to be resolved. In Astronomy, Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion are three mathematical laws that describe the motion of Planets in the Solar System. Newton 's law of universal Gravitation is a physical law describing the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass A fundamental difference between Newton's cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial bodies. In Cosmology, the Copernican principle, named after Nicolaus Copernicus, states the Earth is not in a central specially favoured position A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.

Modern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's publication of his final modification of general relativity in the paper "Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory of Relativity," (although this paper was not widely available outside of Germany until the end of World War I). Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of Gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916 World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All General relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild and Arthur Eddington to explore the astronomical consequences of the theory, which enhanced the growing ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. This article discusses scientific theories of creation (cosmogony Willem de Sitter ( May 6 1872 &ndash November 20 1934) was a Dutch mathematician physicist and astronomer Karl Schwarzschild ( October 9, 1873 - May 11, 1916) was a German Jewish Physicist and Astronomer. Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, OM (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944 was an English Astrophysicist of the early 20th century Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Prior to this (and for some time afterwards), physicists assumed that the Universe was static and unchanging. In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, a debate was unfolding regarding the nature of the cosmos itself. On the one hand, Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up of the Milky Way star system only. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply Heber D. Curtis, on the other hand, suggested spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right, island universes. Heber Doust Curtis ( June 27 1872 – January 9 1942) was an American Astronomer. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate at the meeting of the (US) National Academy of Sciences in Washington on 26 April 1920. This is about the infamous discussion of astronomy For the Dream Theater song about Stem cell research, see The Great Debate (song. The resolution of the debate on the structure of the cosmos came with the detection of novae in the Andromeda galaxy by Edwin Hubble in 1923 and 1924. The Andromeda Galaxy (ænˈdrɒmədə also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224; often referred to as the Great Andromeda Edwin Powell Hubble ( November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. Their distance established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way and as galaxies of their own. Subsequent modeling of the universe explored the possibility that the cosmological constant introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper may result in an expanding universe, depending on its value. In Physical cosmology, the cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter Lambda: Λ was proposed by Albert Einstein as a modification The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i Thus the big bang theory was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître in 1927 which was subsequently corroborated by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the red shift in 1929 and later by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( July 17, 1894 &ndash June 20, 1966) was a Belgian Roman Catholic Priest Edwin Powell Hubble ( November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. In Physics and Astronomy, redshift occurs when Electromagnetic radiation – usually Visible light – emitted or reflected by Arno Allan Penzias (born April 26, 1933) is an American Physicist and Nobel laureate in physics. Robert Woodrow Wilson (born January 10, 1936) is an American Astronomer, Nobel laureate in physics, who with Arno Allan These findings were a first step to rule out some of many alternative physical cosmologies. A non-standard cosmology is any physical cosmological model of the universe that has been or still is proposed as an alternative to the Big bang model

Recent observations made by the COBE and WMAP satellites observing this background radiation have effectively, in many scientists' eyes, transformed cosmology from a highly speculative science into a predictive science, as these observations matched predictions made by a theory called Cosmic inflation, which is a modification of the standard big bang theory. In Physical cosmology, cosmic inflation is the idea that the nascent Universe passed through a phase of exponential expansion that The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. This has led many to refer to modern times as the "Golden age of cosmology". [4]

Metaphysical cosmology

Hand-coloured version of the anonymous wood engraving known as the Flammarion woodcut(1888).
Hand-coloured version of the anonymous wood engraving known as the Flammarion woodcut(1888). Hand-colouring refers to any of a number of methods of manually adding colour to a Black-and-white Photograph or other image to heighten its realism The Flammarion woodcut is an anonymous Wood engraving (once thought to be a Woodcut) so named because its first documented appearance is in Camille Flammarion
Main article: Cosmology (metaphysics)

In philosophy and metaphysics, cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time and all phenomena. See Cosmology (disambiguation. Cosmology is the branch of Philosophy and Metaphysics that deals with the World Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many cases was founded in religion. The ancient Greeks did not draw a distinction between this use and their model for the cosmos. However, in modern use it addresses questions about the Universe which are beyond the scope of science. It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions using philosophical methods (e. g. dialectics). In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Modern metaphysical cosmology tries to address questions such as:

Religious cosmology

Large scale structure of the Universe according to one Hindu cosmology.
Large scale structure of the Universe according to one Hindu cosmology. Monism is the metaphysical and Theological view that all is one that all reality is subsumed under the most fundamental category of being or existence Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All Emanationism is Platonic monism and an idea in the Cosmology or Cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems "Creationism" can also refer to Creation myths in general or to a concept about the origin of the soul. In Philosophy, mechanism is a Theory that all natural phenomena can be explained by physical causes Hylomorphism ( Greek hylo-, "wood matter" + -morphism morphē, "form" is the philosophical theory In Natural philosophy, atomism is the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small indestructible building blocks - Atoms Or stated in Teleology ( Greek: telos: end purpose is the philosophical study of design and Purpose. According to Hindu mythology and Cosmology, the universe is cyclically created and destroyed
Main article: Religious cosmology

Many world religions have creation myths that explain the beginnings of the Universe and life. See Cosmology (disambiguation. Religious cosmologies are ways of explaining the history and evolution of the Universe based A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos A creation myth is a supernatural mytho-[[religion religious]] story or explanation that describes the beginnings of humanity, Earth, life, and Often these are derived from scriptural teachings and held to be part of the faith's dogma, but in some cases these are also extended through the use of philosophical and metaphysical arguments. Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or

In some creation myths, the universe was created by a direct act of a god or gods who are also responsible for the creation of humanity (see creationism). This article discusses scientific theories of creation (cosmogony See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus "Creationism" can also refer to Creation myths in general or to a concept about the origin of the soul. In many cases, religious cosmologies also foretell the end of the Universe, either through another divine act or as part of the original design. Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology

Many religions accept the findings of physical cosmology, in particular the big bang, and some, such as the Roman Catholic Church, have embraced it as suggesting a philosophical first cause. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. Others have tried to use the methodology of science to advocate for their own religious cosmology, as in intelligent design or creationist cosmologies. Intelligent Creation science or scientific creationism is a movement within Creationism which attempts to use scientific means to disprove the accepted scientific theories on

Esoteric cosmology

Main article: Esoteric cosmology

Many esoteric and occult teachings involve highly elaborate cosmologies. Esoteric cosmology is Cosmology that is an intrinsic part of an esoteric or occult system of thought The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden" These constitute a "map" of the Universe and of states of existences and consciousness according to the worldview of that particular doctrine. A comprehensive world view (or worldview) is a term Calqued from the German word Weltanschauung ( Welt is the German Such cosmologies cover many of the same concerns also addressed by religious and philosophical cosmology, such as the origin, purpose, and destiny of the Universe and of consciousness and the nature of existence. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with For this reason it is difficult to distinguish where religion or philosophy end and esotericism and/or occultism begins.

Common themes addressed in esoteric cosmology are emanation, involution, evolution, epigenesis, planes of existence, hierarchies of spiritual beings, cosmic cycles (e. Emanationism is Platonic monism and an idea in the Cosmology or Cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems The term involution refers to different things depending on the writer Spiritual evolution is the Philosophical, theological, esoteric or spiritual idea that nature and human beings and/or human culture evolve along Spiritual evolution is the Philosophical, theological, esoteric or spiritual idea that nature and human beings and/or human culture evolve along In Metaphysics and Esoteric cosmology, a plane, other than the Physical plane, is conceived as a subtle state of Consciousness that transcends This list of deities is an index to Polytheistic deities of the different religions cultures and mythologies of the world listed by type and by region g. , cosmic year, Yuga), yogic or spiritual disciplines, and references to altered states of consciousness. A Yuga ( Devanāgari: युग in Hindu philosophy is the name of an 'epoch' or 'era' within a cycle of four ages Yoga ( Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, joːgə refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the An altered state of consciousness, (ASC also named altered state of mind is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking Beta wave state Examples of esoteric cosmologies can be found in modern Theosophy, Gnosticism, Tantra (especially Kashmir Shaivism), Kabbalah, or Sufism. This article is about the philosophy introduced by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems Tantra ( Sanskrit: तन्त्र; " Weave " denoting continuity) tantricism or tantrism is any of several esoteric See also Shaivism Among the various Hindu philosophies, Kaśmir Śaivism is a school of Śaivism categorized by various scholars as Monistic Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Sufi cosmology (الكوزمولوجية الصوفية is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations.
  2. ^ Insert footnote text here
  3. ^ Weinberg, Steven. 1992. Dreams of a Final Theory (Pantheon Books, NY) p158. ISBN 0-679-41923-3
  4. ^ Alan Guth is reported to have made this very claim in an Edge Foundation interview [1]. Alan Harvey Guth (born February 27, 1947) is a Theoretical physicist and Cosmologist. Overview of Organizations named Edge Foundation There are three organizations named The Edge Foundation The Edge Foundation (www

References

External links

Dictionary

cosmology

-noun

  1. The study of the physical universe, its structure, dynamics, origin and evolution, and fate
  2. A metaphysical study into the origin and nature of the universe
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