In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built In Architecture, Construction, Engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following Any man-made Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of multitasking. Normally the job is managed by the project manager and supervised by the construction manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project architect. hiyaA project manager is a professional in the field of Project management. Construction Management refers either to the study and practice of the managerial and technological aspects of the Construction industry (including construction construction Design Engineer Design engineer is a general term that covers multiple engineering disciplines including but not limited to Construction engineering concerns the planning and management of the Construction of structures such as Highways Bridges Airports Railroads A Project Architect is a term used to define a specific Role in an Architect's Office.

For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential. In Management, the ultimate measure of management's Performance is the metric of management effectiveness which includes execution or how well management's For all other uses see Project (disambiguation. A project, as defined in the field of Project management, consists of a temporary Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Those involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, site safety, availability of materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays, preparing tender documents, etc. Budget (from French bougette, purse generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and revenues Construction is the most dangerous land based work sector in Europe (the Fishing industry being more dangerous Construction delays are delays in progress compared to the baseline Construction schedule. Calls for bids or calls for tenders or invitations to tender (ITT (often called tenders for short are special procedures to generate competing offers

Contents 1 Types of construction projects 1.1 Building construction 1.1.1 Procurement 1.1.1.1 Traditional 1.1.1.2 Design and build 1.1.1.3 Management procurement systems 1.2 Residential construction 1.3 Heavy/Civil construction 2 Authority having jurisdiction 3 Routes into construction careers 4 Industrial construction 5 Design team 6 Financial advisors 7 Legal considerations 8 Interaction of expertise 9 History 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Types of construction projects

In general, there are three types of construction:

1. Building construction
2. Heavy/highway construction
3. Industrial construction

Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct, and maintain the project.

Building construction

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. In the Common law, real property (or realty) refers to one of the two main classes of Property, the other class being Personal property ( The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common - design, financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

Building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging.

Procurement

Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building. There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the three most common types of procurement are:

1. Traditional (Design-bid-build)
2. Design and Build
3. Management Contracting

Traditional

Main article: Design-bid-build

This the most common method of construction procurement and is well established and recognised. Design-bid-build (or design/bid/build, and abbreviated D-B-B or D/B/B accordingly also known as Design-tender (or "design/tender" In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. His or her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction drawings, administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. There are direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main contractor. Any subcontractor will have a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor.

Design and build

Main article: Design-build

This approach has become more common in recent years and includes an entire completed package, including fixtures, fittings and equipment where necessary, to produce a completed fully functional building. Design-build (or design/build, and abbreviated D-B or D/B accordingly is a Construction project delivery system where in contrast to " In some cases, the Design and Build (D & B) package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents.

The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The owner selects the ideas he likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together. Once a contractor (or a consortium/consortia) has been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed.

Kent Hansen, director of engineering for the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA), pointed out that state departments of transportation (DOTs) usually use design build contracts as a way of getting projects done when states don't have the resources. In DOTs, design build contracts are usually used for very large projects. ^[1]

Management procurement systems

Main article: Construction management

In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction manager, and individual trade contractors. Construction Management refers either to the study and practice of the managerial and technological aspects of the Construction industry (including construction construction An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Construction Management refers either to the study and practice of the managerial and technological aspects of the Construction industry (including construction construction The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they all work smoothly and effectively together.

Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes, allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, the ability to appoint individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control.

Residential construction

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (eg. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square metre (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople.

Heavy/Civil construction

Heavy/Civil construction is the process adding infrastructure to our built environment. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids Owners of these projects are usually government agencies, either at the national or local level. As in building construction, heavy/civil construction has design, financial, and legal considerations, however these projects are not usually undertaken for-profit, but to service the public interest. However, heavy/civil construction projects are also undertaken by large private corporations, including, among others, golf courses, harbors, power companies, railroads, and mines, who undertake the construction of access roads, dams, railroads, general site grading, and massive earthwork projects. As in building construction, the owner will assemble a team to create an overall plan to ensure that the goals of the project are met.

Authority having jurisdiction

In construction, the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is the governmental agency or subagency which regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality in which the building is located. A municipality is an administrative entity composed of a clearly defined territory and its population and commonly denotes a City, Town, or Village, or However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ.

During the planning of a building, the zoning and planning boards of the AHJ will review the overall compliance of the proposed building with the municipal General Plan and zoning regulations. Zoning is a term used in Urban planning for a system of land-use Regulation in various parts of the world including North America the United Kingdom Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Once the proposed building has been approved, detailed civil, architectural, and structural plans must be submitted to the municipal building department (and sometimes the public works department) to determine compliance with the building code and sometimes for fit with existing infrastructure. A building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as Buildings and Nonbuilding Often, the municipal fire department will review the plans for compliance with fire-safety ordinances and regulations.

Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to notify utility companies, either directly or through a company such as Dig Safe to ensure that underground utility lines can be marked. Kansas City Missouri only Items for the metro area Kansas City Kansas or North Kansas City MO should go on their respective pages This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. A building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as Buildings and Nonbuilding Once construction is complete and a final inspection has been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued. Occupancy is a defined Legal term in Building Construction and Building codes It refers to the use or intended use of a building or part thereof

An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. Fire safety refers to precautions that are taken to prevent or reduce the likelihood of a Fire that may result in death injury or property damage alert those in a structure The fire code is enforced by the local fire department.

Any changes made to a building including its use, expansion, its structural integrity, and fire protection items, require acceptance by the AHJ. Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of Fires ref>NFPA Fire Protection Handbook pg Anything affecting basic safety functions, no matter how small they may appear, may require the owner to apply for a building permit, to ensure proper review of the contemplated changes against the building code.

Routes into construction careers

There are several routes to the different careers within the construction industry. Career is a term defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as an individual's "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion of life" Craft industries offer jobs where employees train while they work through apprenticeships and other training schemes. A craft is a Skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a Trade or particular art Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Apprenticeship is a system of Training a new generation of practitioners of a skill The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge skills and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge Another way, where many construction staff have found success, is through recruitment agencies.

Technical occupations in the UK require GCSE qualifications or vocational equivalents, either initially or through on the job apprenticeship training. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE) is the name of an academic qualification awarded in a specified subject generally taken in a number of subjects by A vocation is an occupation for which a person is suited trained or qualified The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge skills and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge One example is that of Quantity Surveying. Quantity Surveyors are effectively cost managers within the construction industry and may be: (1) employed by Chartered Surveyor practices (referred to often as "PQS" derived from the term Private Quantity Surveyor) who normally represent the client's interest and liaise with the Architect on the client's team, preparing cost plans, preparing tender documentation, giving cost advice on variations, preparing monthly valuation payments to the contractor, agreeing the final account with the contractor, generally looking after the client's interests (although the role can be referred to within some standard forms of contract as being a neutral role to value 'the' costs of the project), in practice it tends to be looking after the client's interests primarily; or (2) employed by Main Contractors, in which role they manage the contractor's costs, place subcontract orders, make payments to subcontractors, claim monthly valuations from the client's surveyor (Private QS or "PQS"), cost manage variations, prepare internal cost reports to senior management and directors, generally managing the project commercially and protect the contractor's interests contractually. Contractual aspects such as delays and extensions of time issues are also within the remit of the Quantity Surveyor (QS); or

(3) employed by Subcontractors, in which role they carry out a similar function to Main Contractor's QS's. The main difference is that they are normally submitting monthly valuation claims for payment to the Main Contractor, whereas the Manin Contractor claims from the client's Surveyor (usually a Chartered Surveyor practice or Private QS "PQS"). Large subcontractors may also employ sub-subcontractors, thereby making the QS role similar in the cost management role, including placing sub-contract orders (to sub-subcontractors), valuing and claiming variations, preparing cost reports to senior management, etc; or

(4) employed by Local Authorities (local Councils, etc), whereby the role is broadly similar to that of private practice surveyors in cost managing project from the funding client's perspective (in this case the Local Authority council within which they are employed), dealing usually with main contractors; or (5) employed by Developers; whereby the role may be a mixture of the role of a client's surveyor (the funding client being the developer in this case) mixed with that of a main contractor in possibly employing package sub-contractors directly Other information: The most recognised body for surveyors in construction is the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (the 'RICS'). It is more common for a private practice surveyor or local authority employed surveyor to be a member of the RICS, though RICS qualified surveyors do work within main contractors and sub-contractors (the writer of this Quantity Surveyor segment qualified RICS within private practice working on the client's side, then migrated over to work for a large sub-contractor. Such cross-overs are quite common between client's side and contracting). Quantity Surveying offers a great diversity of roles and in career path, working on a variety of projects and within different areas and facets of the construction industry. The qualification of "Chartered Quantity Surveyor" has been superseded as the RICS rules have replaced this with simply "Chartered Surveyor" (except those existing Chartered QS's who registered to keep the Chartered QS title by a date now passed), and Chartered Quantity Surveyor practices have now largely adopted the title of "Construction Cost Consultants" and having the right to call themselves simply "Chartered Surveyors" - though still often referred to in the UK construction industry as "PQS's". It is also possible for Construction Cost Consultant practices to be occasionally employed by local authorities, contractors or subcontractors, on a particular construction project although not if they are already employed as surveyors for the same construction project.

As well as the role of Quantity Surveyor, other professions within the UK construction industry are for example: Architect, Engineer, Project Manager, Planner, Safety Officer. These roles may be in 'Building' (buildings such as Offices, Shopping Centres, Housing); or 'Civil Engineering' (structures such as Bridges, Dams, Motorways/Roads/Highways, Harbours/Ferry Terminals). While projects such as construction of new Power Stations or Naval Bases may comprise a combination of both 'building' and 'civil engineering'.

Graduate roles in the construction industry are filled by people with at least a foundation degree in subjects such as civil engineering, construction engineering, architecture, building science and construction management. The Foundation Degree is a Vocational Qualification introduced by the Government of the United Kingdom in September 2001, which is available Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built Construction engineering concerns the planning and management of the Construction of structures such as Highways Bridges Airports Railroads The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Building science is the collection of scientific knowledge that focuses on the analysis and control of the physical phenomena affecting buildings Construction Management refers either to the study and practice of the managerial and technological aspects of the Construction industry (including construction construction Graduates often receive specialized positions and gain qualifications such as chartered status. A charter is the grant of authority or rights stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified

Industrial construction

Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component. Owners of these projects are usually large, for-profit, industrial corporations. These corporations can be found in such industries as medicine, petroleum, chemical, power generation, manufacturing, etc. Processes in these industries require highly specialized expertise in planning, design, and construction. As in building and heavy/highway construction, this type of construction requires a team of individuals to ensure a successful project.

Design team

In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of paper or computer based designs into reality. Shasta Dam is a curved gravity concrete Dam (National ID No CA10186 on the Sacramento River above Redding California near Shasta Lake City Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team including architects, interior designers, surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, and fire protection engineers. Drawing is a Visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction Interior design is a practice concerned with anything that is found inside a space - walls windows doors finishes textures light furnishings and furniture Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between This list of civil engineers is a list of notable people who have been trained in or have practiced Civil engineering. A quantity surveyor (QS or cost engineer is a professional person working within the Construction industry. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of Engineering that deals with the study and application of Structural engineers analyze design plan and research structural components and Structural systems Their work takes account mainly of technical economic and environmental Fire protection engineering (also known as fire engineering or fire safety engineering) is the application of science and engineering principles to protect people The design team is most commonly employed by (i. e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. A bill of quantities (BOQ is a document itemising the materials parts and labor (and their costs required to construct maintain or repair a structure or device A quantity surveyor (QS or cost engineer is a professional person working within the Construction industry. Following evaluation of bids, the owner will typically award a contract to the lowest responsible bidder.

The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or "construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design Build" contract where the contractor is given a performance specification, and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications.

Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build, partnering, and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers, and constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services alone, and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build process.

The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge. Architectural engineering, also known as Building Engineering, is the application of Engineering principles and Technology to Building Design

Financial advisors

Many construction projects suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials, and because they are a matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise even when the overall total is enough. Cash flow (also called net cash flow) is the balance of the amounts of Cash being received and paid by a business during a defined period of time sometimes tied Fraud is a problem in many fields, but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field. In the broadest sense a fraud is a Deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual Financial planning for the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan, with adequate safeguards and contingency plans, is in place before the project is started, and is required to ensure that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project.

Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an overall plan for the financial management of the building construction project. A mortgage loan is a Loan secured by Real property through the use of a Mortgage (a legal instrument An accountant is a practitioner of Accountancy, which is the measurement disclosure or provision of assurance about financial information that helps managers investors The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely even in relatively small projects, since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project, and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. An accountant is a practitioner of Accountancy, which is the measurement disclosure or provision of assurance about financial information that helps managers investors Cost engineers apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor was able to identify change orders or changes in the project resulting in large increases in cost, which are not subject to competition by other firm as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid. ^[2]

Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries forward. In many English speaking countries, but not the United States, projects typically use quantity surveyors.

Legal considerations

A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of construction.

The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project that fails to adhere to codes will not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad - bridge collapses or explosions. Malum in se (plural mala in se) is a Latin phrase meaning wrong or evil in itself. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business district and residences to a residential district. Malum prohibitum (plural mala prohibita, literal translation "wrong or because prohibited" is a Latin phrase used in Law to An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law governing the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge design won't collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).

A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that a delay costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts lead to confusion and collapse.

Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for preventing problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.

Interaction of expertise

Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforces the financial consequences of the construction process.

History

Main article: History of construction

The first buildings were huts and shelters, constructed by hand or with simple tools. This article describes the history of costruction tools and methods - how things were built A Hut is a small and crude shelter usually used for Dwelling. As cities grew during the bronze age, a class of professional craftsmen like bricklayers and carpenters appeared. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing A bricklayer or mason is a Tradesman who lays bricks to construct Brickwork. A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings, Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services In the middle ages, these were organized into guilds. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers. A crane is a lifting machine equipped with a Winder, Wire ropes or Chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to An excavator is an Engineering vehicle consisting of an articulated arm (boom stick bucket and Cab mounted on a Pivot (a rotating platform like a ----A bulldozer is a crawler ( Caterpillar tracked Tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities

See also: History of architecture

See also

• Architecture
• Architectural engineering
• Building code
• Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste)
• Construction bidding
• Construction site safety
• Construction worker
• Civil engineering
• Construction engineering
• Deconstruction (building)
• List of construction topics
• List of construction trades
• Project management
• Real estate

References

External links

• / Construction at the Open Directory Project
• Construction Safety Supplies - Europe
• The residential design & construction process - Australia
• Residential structures: the basics - Australia

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

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