| Constantine I | |
| Emperor of the Roman Empire | |
 Head of Constantine's colossal statue at the Capitoline Museums |
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| Reign | 25 July 306 – 29 October 312 (hailed as Augustus in the West, officially made Caesar by Galerius with Severus as Augustus, by agreement with Maximian, refused relegation to Caesar in 309) 29 October 312 – 19 September 324 (undisputed Augustus in the West, senior Augustus in the empire) 19 September 324 – 22 May 337 (emperor of united empire) |
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| Full name | Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus |
| Born | 27 February ca. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Capitoline Museums ( Italian Musei Capitolini) are a group of art and archeological Museums in Piazza del Campidoglio Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Events By Place Roman Empire October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Events By Place Roman Empire October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Events By Place Roman Empire July 3 — Battle of Adrianople: Constantine I defeats Licinius, forcing him Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Events By Place Roman Empire July 3 — Battle of Adrianople: Constantine I defeats Licinius, forcing him Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation 272[1] |
| Birthplace | Naissus (modern Niš, Serbia) |
| Died | 22 May 337 |
| Place of death | Nicomedia (modern Izmit, Turkey) |
| Predecessor | Constantius Chlorus |
| Successor | Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans |
| Wives | Minervina, died or divorced before 307 Fausta |
| Dynasty | Constantinian |
| Father | Constantius Chlorus |
| Mother | Helena |
| Children | Constantina, Helena, Crispus, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans |
Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[2] (27 February ca. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens İzmit (ancient Nicomedia) is a city in Turkey, administrative center of Kocaeli Province as well as the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 Minervina was the wife or mistress of Constantine. She had one son Crispus. Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. The Constantinian dynasty is an informal name for the ruling family of the Roman Empire from Constantius Chlorus († 305) to the death of Julian Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Saint Helena (Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (c Constantina (also named Constantia and Constantiana; b after 307/before 317 - d Flavius Julius Crispus, also known as Flavius Claudius Crispus and Flavius Valerius Crispus was a Caesar of the Roman Empire. Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation 272[1] – 22 May 337), commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great (among Roman Catholics), or Saint Constantine (among Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Christians), was Roman Emperor from 306, and the undisputed holder of that office from 324 to his death. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The Greek Byzantine Catholic Church is a Sui iuris Particular Church within the Catholic Church and uses the Byzantine liturgical rite The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Best known for being the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine reversed the persecutions of his predecessor, Diocletian, and issued (with his co-emperor Licinius) the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious toleration throughout the empire. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own
The Byzantine liturgical calendar, observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine rite, lists both Constantine and his mother Helena as saints. The Byzantine Rite, sometimes called the Rite of Constantinople or Constantinopolitan Rite, is the liturgical rite used currently (in various languages The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world This article refers to Eastern Churches in full communion with the Holy See Saint Helena (Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (c Although he is not included in the Latin Church's list of saints, which does recognize several other Constantines as saints, he is revered under the title "The Great" for his contributions to Christianity. The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church.
In 324, Constantine announced his decision to transform Byzantium into Nova Roma and on May 11, 330, he officially proclaimed the city the new capital of the Roman Empire. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople Events By Place Roman Empire May 11 — Constantine I refounds Byzantium, renames it New Rome The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Under the name Constantinople, it would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over a thousand years. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS
Contents |
Sources
The ancient sources for Constantine's reign are abundant and detailed,[3] but have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period,[4] and are often one-sided. [5] There are no surviving histories or biographies dealing with Constantine's life and rule. [6] The nearest replacement is Eusebius of Caesarea's Vita Constantini, a work that is a mixture of eulogy and hagiography. A eulogy is a speech or writing in Praise of a person or thing Hagiography ( is the study of Saints. A hagiography, from Greek (hağios (ἅγιος "holy" or "saint" and graphē (γραφή [7] Written between 335 and circa 339,[8] the Vita extols Constantine's moral and religious virtues. [9] The Vita creates a contentiusly positive image of Constantine,[10] and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. [11] The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini. [12] A work of uncertain date,[13] the Origo focuses on military and political events, to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. [14]
Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum, a polemical Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals [15] The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Socrates of Constantinople was a Greek Christian church historian a contemporary of Sozomen and Theodoret, who used his work he was born at Constantinople Salminius Hermias Sozomenus (Σωζομενός (c 400 - c 450 was a Historian of the Christian church Theodoret (c 393 &ndash c 457 was an influential author theologian and Christian Bishop of Cyrrhus Syria (423-457 [16] Written during the reign of Theodosius II (408–50), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastic historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation and deliberate obscurity. Flavius Theodosius ( 10 April, 401 – July 28, 450) called the Calligrapher, known in English as Theodosius II, was [17] The contemporary writings of the Orthodox Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. Philostorgius (Greek Φιλοστοργιος 368 - ca 439 was a so-called Anomoean Church historian of the 4th and 5th centuries [18]
The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (De Caesaribus), Eutropius (Breviarium), Festus (Breviarium), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. An epitome ( Greek epitemnein —to cut short is a summary or miniature form also used as a Synonym for embodiment Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca 320-ca 390 was an historian and politician of the Roman Empire. For the Byzantine officer see also Eutropius (Byzantine official (396-397 Although pagan, the epitomes paint a favorable image of Constantine, but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. [19] The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. The Panegyrici Latini or Latin Panegyrics is a collection of twelve ancient Roman Panegyric orations A panegyric is a formal public speech, or (in later use written verse delivered in high praise of a Person or thing, a generally highly studied and discriminating [20] Contemporary architecture, like the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba,[21] epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. The Arch of Constantine (Italian Arco di Costantino is a Triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. Gamzigrad (Гамзиград is a spa resort in Serbia, located south of the Danube river, near Zaječar. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review [22]
Early life
Constantine, named Flavius Valerius Constantinus, was born in the Moesian military city of Naissus (Niš, Serbia) on the 27th of February of an uncertain year,[23] probably near 272. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation [24] His father was Flavius Constantius, a native of Moesia Superior (later Dacia Ripensis). Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the Dacia ripensis ( Greek: Ρειπήσιος English translation: "from the banks of the Danube" was the name of a Roman province (part of Dacia [25] Constantius was a tolerant and politically skilled man. [26] Constantine probably spent little time with his father. [27] Constantius was an officer in the Roman army in 272, part of the Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's Illyrian companions, in 284 or 285. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate [25] Constantine's mother was Helena, a Bithynian of humble origin. Saint Helena (Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (c Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine. [28]
In July 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature [29] Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens İzmit (ancient Nicomedia) is a city in Turkey, administrative center of Kocaeli Province as well as the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The division was merely pragmatic: the Empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric,[30] and both emperors could move freely throughout the Empire. [31] In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul. For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian. [32]
Diocletian divided the Empire again in 293, appointing two Caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Each would be subordinate to their respective Augustus (senior emperor) but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad, Serbia). Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Gamzigrad (Гамзиград is a spa resort in Serbia, located south of the Danube river, near Zaječar. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. [33] On March 1, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 [34] In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege,[35] and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine left the Balkans for the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive. [36]
In the East
Constantine received a formidable education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. [37] The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid and socially mobile, and Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. [38] Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behavior. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia, and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296, and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria (297) and under Galerius in Mesopotamia (298–99). Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the [39] By late 305, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi. [40]
_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg/180px-DSC04500i_Istanbul_-_Museo_archeol._-_Diocleziano_(284-205_d.C.)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg)
Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's "Great Persecution", the severest persecution of Christians in Roman history. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. In its first three centuries the Christian church endured periods of persecution at the hands of Roman authorities [41] In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion an Infallible authority usually spiritual in nature Didyma (Greek Δίδυμα was an ancient Ionian sanctuary the modern Didim, Turkey, containing a [42] Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution. [43] On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flame, and had its treasures seized. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Events By Place Roman Empire Persuaded by Galerius, Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. [44]
It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. [45] In his later writings he would attempt present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "worshipers of God",[46] but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. [47] Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. [48]
On May 1, 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–5, announced his resignation. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same. [49] Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c [50] It was not to be: Severus and Maximin were appointed, while Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. [51]
Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. [52] It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. [53]
In the West
Constantine's recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. [54] In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son, to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how Constantine fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, mutilating every horse in his wake. Cursus publicus was the courier service of the Roman Empire. It was created by Emperor Augustus to transport messages officials and tax revenues from one province Hamstringing is a method of crippling a person so he or she cannot walk properly by cutting the two large tendons at the back of the knees [55] By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. [56] Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of 305. For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day Boulogne-sur-Mer ( Bonen in Dutch is a City in Northern France. [57]
From Bononia they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. York ( is an historic Walled city sited at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Eboracum was a fort and City in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. York ( is an historic Walled city sited at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. Britannia Secunda was one of the provinces of Roman Britain in existence by c Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. The Picts were a Confederation of tribes in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman [58] Constantius' campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor [59] Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on July 25, 306 in Eboracum (York). Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops Eboracum was a fort and City in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. York ( is an historic Walled city sited at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full Augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Chrocus or Crocus, also Croc KrokusCrochus or Croscus ( fl 260–306 was a leader of the Alamanni in the late 3rd century The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule;[60] Iberia, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. [61]
Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius' death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. [62] The portrait was wreathed in bay. The Bay Laurel ( Laurus nobilis, Lauraceae) also known as True Laurel, Sweet Bay, Grecian Laurel, Laurel, or [63] He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". [64] Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait on fire. His advisers calmed him, and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. [65] Galerius was compelled to compromise: He granted Constantine and the title "Caesar" rather than "Augustus" (The latter office went to Severus instead). [66] Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes. [67] Constantine accepted the decision,[66] knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. [68]
Early rule
Constantine's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. He therefore commanded one of the largest Roman armies, stationed along the important Rhine frontier. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge [69] After his promotion to emperor, Constantine remained in Britain, and secured his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and ordered the repair of the region's roadways. [70] He soon left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. Trier in Rhineland-Palatinate, whose history dates to the Roman Empire, is often claimed to be the oldest city in Germany. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. [71] The Franks, after learning of Constantine's acclamation, invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–7. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group [72] Constantine drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured two of their kings, Ascaric and Merogaisus. The kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier's amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations that followed. The adventus was a ceremony in Ancient Rome, in which an emperor was formally welcomed into a city either during a progress or after a military campaign often (but [73]
Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall, and a massive imperial bathhouse. Constantine sponsored many building projects across Gaul during his tenure as Emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles). Autun is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in Burgundy in eastern France. Arles (aʁl̥ Provençal Occitan: Arles in both classical and Mistralian norms is a City in the south of France, [75] According to Lactantius, Constantine followed his father in following a tolerant policy towards Christianity. Although not yet a Christian, he probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution,[76] and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor" himself, Galerius. [77] Constantine decreed a formal end to persecution, and returned to Christians all they had lost during the persecutions. [78]
Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him, he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda: the earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father's deeds as to those of Constantine himself. [79] Constantine's military skill and building projects soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". [80] Constantinian coinage, sculpture and oratory shows a new tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians", however. Above coins depicting weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen—"The Alemanni conquered"—the phrase "Romans' rejoicing" is printed. [81] As his panegyrist declared: "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe. "[82]
Maxentius' rebellion
Following Galerius' recognition of Constantine as emperor, his portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot, and lamented his own powerlessness. [83] Maxentius, jealous of Constantine's authority,[84] seized the title of emperor on October 28, 306. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops Galerius refused to recognize him, but failed to unseat him. During his first campaign against Maxentius, Severus' armies defected, and he was seized and imprisoned. [85] Over the spring and summer of 307, he left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil. [86] Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to him, and elevate him to Augustan rank. Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted, and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meager support, offering Maxentius political recognition. [87]
Constantine remained aloof from military conflict, however. Instead of sending his troops into a civil war, he sent them against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri, and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). The Bructeri were a Germanic tribe located in northwestern Germany (Soester Börde between the Lippe and Ems rivers south of the Teutoburg In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence, and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people, and strengthened his power base in the West. [90] Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8, but soon fell out with his son. In early 309, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. [91]
On November 11, 308, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Events By Place Roman Empire November 11 — The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire the Carnuntum (Καρνοιις in Ptolemy) was an important Roman army camp in what is now Austria. Petronell-Carnuntum is a community of Bruck an der Leitha in Austria. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. Severus, one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed Augustus of the west. Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to style himself as Augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a Caesar on theirs. Maximinus was frustrated that he had been turned over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of Augustus, and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine "sons of the Augusti",[92] but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as Augusti. [93]
Maximian's rebellion
In 310, a dispossessed and power-hungry Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He there announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine. [95] At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone. Not to be confused with Châlons-en-Champagne, formerly known as Châlons-sur-Marne The Saône (son ( Sona in Arpitan) is a River of eastern France. The Rhone, or the Rhône is one of the major Rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon). This article is about the city in Gaul for other uses of Lugdunum see Lugdunum (disambiguation Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (modern ||-||} Lyon, also known as Lyons in English is a city in east-central France. [96] Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. [95]
In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. [97] He began printing coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. [98] Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. [99] In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. Damnatio memoriae is the Latin phrase literally meaning "damnation of memory" in the sense of removed from the remembrance. [100]
The death of Maximian necessitated a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian, and needed a new source of legitimacy. [101] In a speech delivered in Gaul on July 25, 310, the orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a third-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire While Constantine is campaigning against the Bructeri, Maximian attempts to make himself Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. [102] Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. [103]
The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In Roman mythology, Victoria was the personification/Goddess of victory A laurel wreath is a circular Wreath made of interlocking branches and leaves of the Bay Laurel ( Laurus nobilis Lauraceae) an aromatic In the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world",[104] as the poet Virgil had once foretold. [105] The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo. Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun" or more fully Deus Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun God" was the late Roman state Sun god. [106] There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. [107]
Civil wars
War against Maxentius
By the middle of 310 Galerius had had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. [108] As his last political act, Galerius decided to rescind his failed policies of persecution. In a letter to his provincials posted in Nicomedia on April 30, 311, Galerius proclaimed an end to the persecutions, and a resumption of official religious toleration. Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Events By Place Roman Empire May 5 — Galerius issues his Edict of Toleration ending Persecution of Christians [109] He died soon after. [110] Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the tetrarchic system. [111] Maximinus mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor. Licinius and Maximinus arranged a temporary peace on the Bosphorus soon thereafter. [112] While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. [113] He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius. The Bishop of Rome is the bishop of the Holy See, more often referred to in the Catholic tradition as the Pope. Pope [114]
Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage;[115] and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. Lucius Domitius Alexander (d ca 311 probably born in Phrygia, was Vicarius of Africa when Emperor Maxentius ordered him to [89] By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported,[116] even among Christian Italians. [117] In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". [118] Constantine, in an attempt to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius,[119] forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support. Maxentius accepted. [120] According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". [121]
Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius;[122] even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavorable omens. The Palatine Towers ( Porte Palatine; Piedmontese: Tor Roman-e) is an ancient Roman -medieval structure in Turin, Italy. [123] Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance,[124] ignored all these cautions, and attacked Maxentius without a casus belli. Casus belli is a Latin language expression meaning the justification for acts of war [125] Early in the spring of 312,[126] Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his total army, approximately 40,000 men. The Cottian Alps (French Alpes Cottiennes; Italian Alpi Cozie) are a mountain range in the south-western part of the Alps. [127] He first came to Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Susa is a city in Piedmont, Italy. It is situated on a tributary of the Po River, at the foot of the Cottian Alps, 51 km (32 mi west of Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Constantine ordered his forces set its gates on fire, scaled its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town, and advanced into northern Italy. [126]
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. [128] In the ensuing battle Constantine encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. The Battle of Turin was fought in 312 between Roman emperor Constantine and the troops of his rival for the purple Maxentius. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. [129] Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. [130] Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia). Brixia is the Latin name of the modern city of Brescia in Northern Italy. Brescia ( Lombard: Brèsa) is a city in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. [131]
Brescia's army was easily dispersed,[132] and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona, where a large Maxentian force was camped. Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. [133] Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect,[134] was in a strong defensive position. Constantine sent a small force to cross the river at a point north of the city. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force, but it was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. [135] Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately-fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. The Battle of Verona was fought in 312 between the forces of the Roman emperors Constantine I and Maxentius. [136] Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia,[137] Mutina (Modena),[138] and Ravenna. Aquileia (also called Aquilegia, Friulian Acuilee/Aquilee, Slovene Oglej) is an ancient Roman city in what is Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. [139] The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. [140]
Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. The Milvian (or Mulvian) Bridge (Ponte Molle or Ponte Milvio Latin: pons Milvius or pons Mulvius) in northern Rome The Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, 312, between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius [141] He still controlled Rome's praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly-impregnable Aurelian Walls. The Aurelian Walls (Mura aureliane were City walls built between 271 and 275 in Rome during the reign of the Roman Emperors Aurelian and He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods,[142] and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. The Tiber ( Latin Tiberis, Italian Tevere) is the third-longest River in Italy, rising in the Apennine mountains [143] Constantine progressed slowly,[144] along the Via Flaminia,[145] allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. The Via Flaminia was a Roman road leading from Rome to Ariminum ( Rimini) and was the most important route to the north [144] Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on October 27, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. [146] Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. [147] On October 28, 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and The Sibylline Books or Libri Sibyllini were a collection of oracular utterances set out in Greek Hexameters purchased from a Sibyl The keepers found in them a prophecy stating that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. [148]
Maxentius organized his forces—still twice the size of Constantine's—in long lines facing the battle plain, with their backs to the river. [149] When Constantine's army made its appearance, some of its soldiers bore unusual markings on their shields: instead of the traditional pagan standards, a new sign, the labarum, was mounted. The Labarum (☧ was a military standard that displayed the first two Greek letters of the word " Christ " ( Greek: ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ or Χριστός [150] According to Lactantius, Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the battle, wherein he was advised "to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers. . . by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he marked Christ on their shields. "[151] Eusebius describes another version, where, while marching at midday, "he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the message, Conquer By This". [152] During the following night, in a dream, Christ appeared with the heavenly sign and told him to make standards for his army in that form. [153] Although Eusebius is vague about when and where this event took place,[154] it enters his narrative before the war against Maxentius begins. [155] Eusebius describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ), or ☧. Chi ( Uppercase Χ, Lowercase χ; Χι He is the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet, pronounced as in English Rho (uppercase Ρ, lowercase ρ or ϱ) is the 17th letter of the Greek alphabet. [156] The Eusebian description of the vision has been explained as an example of the meteorological phenomenon known as the "solar halo", which can produce similar effects. A halo (ἅλως also known as a nimbus, icebow or Gloriole) is an Optical phenomenon that appears near or around the Sun or [157]
Constantine deployed his own forces in along the whole length of Maxentius' line. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge, or The Battle at Pons Milvius, is a Fresco in one of the rooms that are now known as the Stanze di Giulio Romano (c 1499 &ndash November 1, 1546) was an Italian painter and architect. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. [149] The battle was brief:[158] Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. [159] Maxentius' horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them, and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed by the mass of his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber, and drowned. [160]
Constantine entered Rome on October 29. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II [161] He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met with popular jubilation. [162] Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through the streets for all to see. [163] After the ceremonies, Maxentius' disembodied head was sent to Carthage, after which Africa gave no further resistance. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers [164] He entered as a Christian: unlike his predecessors, he neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The Capitoline Hill, between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the seven hills of Rome. See Temple of Jupiter for temples to him in other places The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("Jupiter greatest and best" also known [165] He did, however, choose to honor the Senatorial Curia with a visit,[166] where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Curia Julia, (Latin Curia Iulia) the third named curia or senate house in Ancient Rome was built in 44 BC when Julius Caesar replaced [167] In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant his name would be listed first in all official documents,[168] and acclaimed him as "the greatest Augustus". [169] He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. [170]
In an extensive propaganda campaign followed: Maxentius' image was systematically purged from all public places. Maxentius was written up as a "tyrant", and set against an idealized image of the "liberator", Constantine. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. Eusebius, in his later works, is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. [171] Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by Maxentius were re-dedicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius. For the Italian city see Santi Cosma e Damiano (LT. The Basilica of Santi Cosma e Damiano is one of the ancient churches of Rome The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (sometimes known as the Basilica Nova 'new Basilica ' or Basilica Maxentius) was the largest building in [172] Where he did not overwrite Maxentius' achievements, he upstaged them: the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its total seating capacity was twenty-five times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia. The Circus Maximus ( Latin for greatest circus, in Italian Circo Massimo) is an ancient Hippodrome and mass entertainment The Appian Way ( Latin and Italian: Via Appia) was the most important ancient Roman road. [173] Maxentius' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares) were disbanded. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated [174] Their tombstones were ground up and put to use in a basilica on the Via Labicana. The Via Labicana was an ancient road of Italy, leading east southeast from Rome. [175] Early in Constantine's reign, the former base of the Imperial Horse Guard was chosen for redevelopment into the Lateran Basilica. The Basilica of St John Lateran ( Italian: Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano) is the Cathedral of the church of Rome and the official Art historian Richard Krautheimer dated the event as early as November 9, 312, barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. Richard Krautheimer ( Fürth (Franconia Germany, 1897 – Rome, Italy, 1994 was a 20th century art historian architectural historian Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Events By Place Roman Empire October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and [176] The Legio II Parthica was removed from Alba (Albano Laziale). Legio II Parthica was a Roman legion levied by Emperor Septimius Severus in 197, for his campaign against the Parthian Empire, hence Albano Laziale is a commune in the Province of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Lazio ( Latium) [177] and what remained of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. [178]
Wars against Licinius
In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Flavia Julia Constantia, (after 293 &ndash c 330 was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Flavia Maximiana Theodora During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan (which, in its surviving forms, was neither an edict nor issued in Milan), officially granting full tolerance to all religions in the Empire. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire. [179] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion, accepting religious plurality and using only general terms—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas—avoiding any exclusive specificity. [180] The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximinus Daia had crossed the Bosporus and invaded Licinian territory. This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, though, and either in 314 or 316, Constantine and Licinius fought against one another in the war of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. The Battle of Cibalae was fought on October 8, 314 (or perhaps as late as 316 the chronology is uncertain between the two Roman emperors Constantine They clashed again in the Battle of Campus Ardiensis in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made caesars. The Battle of Mardia, also known as Battle of Campus Mardiensis or Battle of Campus Ardiensis, was fought probably at modern Harmanli ( Bulgaria Flavius Julius Crispus, also known as Flavius Claudius Crispus and Flavius Valerius Crispus was a Caesar of the Roman Empire. Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character [181]
In the year 320, Licinius reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire. Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual/group by another group [182] It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient Pagan faiths. The Goths ( Gothic: Gothic usvg|14px|u]]Gothic asvg|14px|a]]Gothic s A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Labarum (☧ was a military standard that displayed the first two Greek letters of the word " Christ " ( Greek: ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ or Χριστός Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the battles of Adrianople, the Hellespont, and at Chrysopolis. The Battle of Adrianople was fought on July 3, 324 during a Roman civil war between the armies of the two emperors Constantine I and The Battle of the Hellespont consisting of two separate naval clashes was fought in 324 between a Constantinian fleet led by the eldest son of Constantine I The Battle of Chrysopolis was fought on 18 September 324 in Chrysopolis ( Üsküdar) near Chalcedon ( Kadıköy) between [183] With the defeat and death of Licinius a year later (he was accused of plotting against Constantine and executed), Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. [184]
Later rule
Foundation of Constantinople
Licinius' defeat represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginning of the role of the Eastern Roman Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium, and renamed it Nova Roma (New Rome) and issued special commemorative coins in 330 to honour the event. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM He provided Nova Roma with a Senate and civic offices similar to those of Rome. The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. The new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which by a Christian tradition are believed to be from the actual cross upon which Jesus was crucified Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial The State Hermitage Museum (Государственный Эрмитаж Gosudarstvennyj Èrmitaž) in Saint Petersburg, Russia is one of the largest In ancient Greek city cults, Tyche (Τύχη meaning "luck" in Greek, Roman equivalent Fortuna) was the presiding Tutelary [185] The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. Christian symbolism is defined as the investing of outward things or actions with an inner meaning the expression of Christian ideas On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Church of the Holy Apostles. For other structures of this name including in the Moscow Kremlin, see Church of the Holy Apostles (disambiguation. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. In Spirituality including Religion, visions comprise Inspirational renderings generally of a Future state and/or of a mythical An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition After his death, his capital was renamed Nova Roma Constantinopolitana (Constantinople in English, "Constantine's City"). Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS [184]
Religious policy
- Further information: Constantine I and Christianity
Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Christian Roman Emperor. His reign was a turning point for the Christian Church. In 313 Constantine announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan, which removed penalties for professing Christianity (under which many had been martyred in previous persecutions of Christians) and returned confiscated Church property. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The persecution of Christians refers to the Religious persecution of Christians both historically and in the current era Though a similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, then senior emperor of the Tetrarchy,[186] Constantine's lengthy rule, conversion, and patronage of the Church redefined the status of Christianity in the empire. Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals From the beginning, Christianity was regarded as completely pacifistic, due to a strict interpretation of the bible as well as constant persecution by the Roman Empire. However, when Christianity became the official religion of the empire "all of Christianity began to embrace just war theory, as an attempt to be realistic about evil and harm-doing", a critical transition for the church. [187] Another consequence of Christianity being the state religion was that clergy members were given preferred status and exempted from military service and forced labor. There was a growing divide between clergy and laity as conversions were often more about socioeconomic status rather than faith. Converts were baptized in order to abuse Christianity for political influence, a problem unheard of before Constantine, when converts to Christianity willingly risked their life for their faith. [188]
Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. Saint Helena (Flavia Iulia Helena Augusta also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople (c [189] Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian. [190] Constantine however still maintained the title of Pontifex Maximus, which emperors bore as heads of the pagan priesthood. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Writing to Christians, Constantine made clear that he believed he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone. [191] Throughout his rule, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e. g. exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian. [192] His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Old Saint Peter's Basilica. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum also called the Church of the Resurrection, ( Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως Naos tis Anastaseos Old Saint Peter's Basilica was the building that once stood on the spot where the Basilica of Saint Peter stands today in Rome.
The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian Emperor in the Church; Constantine considered himself responsible to God for the spiritual health of his subjects, and thus he had a duty to maintain orthodoxy. [193] [194] The emperor ensured that God was properly worshipped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was for the Church to determine. [195] In 316, Constantine acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the heresy of Donatism. The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian Donatus Magnus) were followers of a belief considered a Schism by the broader churches of the After making a decision against the Donatists, Constantine led an army of Christians against Christians. After 300 years of pacifism, this was the first intra-Christian persecution. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified), to deal mostly with the heresy of Arianism. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. Council of Jerusalem (or Apostolic Conference) is a name applied subsequently to a meeting described in Acts of the Apostles chapter and probably referred to Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. Constantine also enforced the prohibition of the First Council of Nicaea against celebrating Easter on the day before the Jewish Passover (14 Nisan) (see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy). The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish This article is about the Jewish month of Nisan See Nissan Motors for the automobile manufacturer See also Easter controversy, Easter Quartodecimanism (derived from the Vulgate Latin: quarta decima, meaning fourteen The Easter controversy is a series of controversies about the proper date to celebrate the Christian festival of Easter. [196]
Constantine instituted several legislative measures which had an impact on Jews. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Conversion of Christians to Judaism was outlawed. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Congregations for religious services were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on Tisha B'Av, the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Tisha B'Av (תשעה באב or he ט׳ באב "the Ninth of Av," is an annual fast day in Judaism, named for the ninth day ( Tisha The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD It was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War, followed by the fall of Masada in 73 Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name
Executions of Crispus and Fausta
On some date between May 15 and June 17, 326, Constantine had his eldest son Crispus seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia). Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Events By Place Roman Empire Constantine I founds Constantinople and incorporates Byzantium into the new city Flavius Julius Crispus, also known as Flavius Claudius Crispus and Flavius Valerius Crispus was a Caesar of the Roman Empire. Pula (Pietas Iulia Pulj Istriot Pula; Pola is the largest city in Istria County, Croatia, situated at the southern tip of the Istria Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between [197] In July, Constantine had his wife, the Empress Fausta, killed at the behest of his mother, Helena. Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. Fausta was left to die in an over-heated bath. [198] Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives in the literary record were erased, and the memory of both was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited praise of Crispus out of later copies of his Historia Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all. [199] Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events; those few that do offer unconvincing rationales, are of later provenance, and are generally unreliable. At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that the Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus, or was spreading rumors to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to Hippolytus–Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities. In Greek mythology, Hippolytus ( Greek for "loose horse" was a son of Theseus and either Antiope or Hippolyte. This article is on the mythological figure For other meanings see Phaedra. [200] One source, the largely fictional Passion of Artemius, probably penned in the eighth century by John of Damascus, makes the legendary connection explicit. Chrysorrhoas redirects here For the river see Barada. Saint John of Damascus ( Arabic: يوحنا الدمشقي [201] As an interpretation of the executions, the myth rests on only "the slimmest of evidence": sources that allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta are late and unreliable, and the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected rests on no evidence at all. [200]
Sickness and death
Eusebius of Caesarea's account resumes following the abortive Persian campaign, with Constantine set about building a martyrion for the apostles in Constantinople, and, within it, a final resting-place for himself. [202] In the course of one Feast of Easter, Constantine fell seriously ill. [203] He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit. There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became a catechumen, and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. In Ecclesiology, a catechumen (ˌkætəˈkjuːmən from Latin catechumenus, Greek κατηχουμενος, instructed is one receiving instruction [204] He summoned the bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized. This article is about the Jordan River and its valley in western Asia He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness. The bishops, Eusebius records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom". [205] He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer. Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341 was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day Beirut) in Phoenicia, then of Nicomedia where the imperial court resided in Bithynia Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens [206] It was thought Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. [207] Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Easter, on May 22, 337. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their [208]
Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. The Baptism of Constantine is a Painting by assistants of the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Emperor Julian, writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire [209] Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini, an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia;[210] the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians;[211] and the Breviarium of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia. This article is about the Roman Emperor For other people called Valens see Valens Flavius Julius Valens ( Latin: DOMINVS [212] From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. [213]
In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until old age or death. [214] Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there. For other structures of this name including in the Moscow Kremlin, see Church of the Holy Apostles (disambiguation. [215] He was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian. Constantina (also named Constantia and Constantiana; b after 307/before 317 - d Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar [216]
Legacy
Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" ("Μέγας") from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. In addition to reuniting the Empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–8, the Franks again in 313–14, the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. Dacia, in ancient geography was the land of the Dacians. It was named by the ancient Hellenes ( Greeks) " Getae " Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia [217]
The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him among the venerable figures of its tradition. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in In the later Byzantine state, it had become a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine". Ten Emperors, including the last emperor of Byzantium, carried the name. [218] At the court of Charlemagne, the selected use of monumental Constantinian forms lent expression to conception of Charlemagne as Constantine's successor and equal. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against "heathens". The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, came to be used as a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. [219] Most Eastern Christian churches consider Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine). [220] In the Byzantine Church he was called isapostolos (Ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles. An equal-to-the-apostles ( Greek:, isapostolos; Latin: aequalis apostolis; întocmai cu Apostolii равноапостольный ravnoapostolni [221]
Donation of Constantine
Latin Rite Catholics of the Middle Ages considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, viewing it as a snub to the authority of the Papacy. The Donation of Constantine ( Latin, Donatio Constantini) is a forged Roman imperial edict devised probably between 750 and 775, the The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church. Hence, by the early fourth century, a legend had emerged that Pope Sylvester I (314–35) had cured the pagan Emperor from leprosy. Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium According to this legend, Constantine was soon baptized, and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Palace. The Lateran Palace, sometimes more formally known as the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran (Italian Palazzo Laterano) is an ancient Palace of the Roman [222] In the eighth century, most likely during the pontificate of Stephen II (752–7), a document called the "Donation of Constantine" first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Stephen and his successors. In sources prior to the 1960s this pope is sometimes called Stephen III and Pope-elect Stephen is sometimes called Stephen II. The Donation of Constantine ( Latin, Donatio Constantini) is a forged Roman imperial edict devised probably between 750 and 775, the Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest [223] In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III[224] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299 The temporal power of the Popes is the political and governmental activity of the Popes of the Roman Catholic Church, as distinguished from their spiritual Otto III (980 &ndash January 23, 1002) was the fourth ruler of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire. The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a forgery. Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla (c 1407 &ndash August 1, 1457) was an Italian humanist, Rhetorician and [225]
Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia
Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor on the territory of Great Britain, Constantine was later also considered a British King. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands In the 11th century, the English writer Geoffrey of Monmouth published a fictional work called Historia Regum Britanniae, in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the Trojan War, King Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c The Historia Regum Britanniae ( English: The History of the Kings of Britain) is a pseudohistorical account of British history In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A legendary king of Celtic Britain, about all that can be said about Old King Cole with any certainty is that Old King Cole was a merry British people, or Britons, are the native inhabitants of Great Britain and their descendants or citizens of the United Kingdom, of the Camulodunum is the Roman name for the ancient settlement which is today's Colchester, a town in Essex, England. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. A legendary king of Celtic Britain, about all that can be said about Old King Cole with any certainty is that Old King Cole was a merry It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Geoffrey also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor. The following list of legendary kings of Britain derives predominantly from Geoffrey of Monmouth 's circa 1136 work Historia Regum Britanniae ("the The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC [226]
Notes
Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine are marked with a "(CC)".
- ^ a b Birth dates vary but most modern historians use "ca. 272". Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59.
- ^ In (Latin Constantine's official imperial title was IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS, Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. After 312, he added MAXIMVS ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced ("undefeated") with VICTOR, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God. Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun" or more fully Deus Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun God" was the late Roman state Sun god.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 14; Cameron, 90–91; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 23–25; Cameron, 90–91; Southern, 169.
- ^ Cameron, 90; Southern, 169.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 14; Corcoran, Empire of the Tetrarchs, 1; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 265–68.
- ^ Drake, "What Eusebius Knew," 21.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 11; Odahl, 3.
- ^ Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 5; Storch, 145–55.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 265–71; Cameron, 90–92; Cameron and Hall, 4–6; Elliott, "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini"", 162–71.
- ^ Lieu and Montserrat, 39; Odahl, 3.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26; Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3.
- ^ Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 12–14; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Mackay, 207; Odahl, 9–10.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 28–29; Odahl, 4–6.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26–29; Odahl, 5–6.
- ^ Odahl, 6, 10.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 27–28; Lieu and Montserrat, 2–6; Odahl, 6–7; Warmington, 166–67.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Odahl, 8.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 20–21; Johnson, "Architecture of Empire" (CC), 288–91; Odahl, 11–12.
- ^ Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 17–21; Odahl, 11–14.
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- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 16–17.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8. 7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 13. 3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13, 290.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 21.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59, 83; Odahl, 16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–14; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 41–54; Odahl, 46–50; Treadgold, 14–15.
- ^ Bowman, 70; Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
- ^ Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 20; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 47, 299; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7. 1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 13, 290.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3, 8; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 40–41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 20; Odahl, 46–47; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 8–9, 14; Treadgold, 17.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 8–9; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 42–43, 54.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 3; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 56–7.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 73–74; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 72, 301.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 47, 73–74; Fowden, "Between Pagans and Christians," 175–76.
- ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum, 16. 2; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 29–30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 72–73.
- ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; Odahl, 72–74, 306; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15. Contra: J. Moreau, Lactance: "De la mort des persécuteurs", Sources Chrétiennes 39 (1954): 313; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 297.
- ^ Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 30; Odahl, 73.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10. 6–11; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 35–36; MacMullen, Constantine, 24; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2. 49–52; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 21; Odahl, 67, 73, 304; Potter, 338.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 22–25; MacMullen, Constantine, 24–30; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 24–25.
- ^ Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25; Odahl, 73.
- ^ Drake, "The Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 126; Elliott, "Constantine's Conversion," 425–26.
- ^ Drake, "The Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 126.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 25–27; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 69–72; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15; Potter, 341–42.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19. 2–6; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 26; Potter, 342.
- ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60–61; Odahl, 72–74; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15.
- ^ Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24. 3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1. 2; Aurelius Victor 40. 2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41. 2; Zosimus 2. 8. 3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 21; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; MacMullen, Constantine, 32; Odahl, 73.
- ^ Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61.
- ^ Odahl, 75–76.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39–40; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; MacMullen, Constantine, 32; Odahl, 77; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16; Potter, 344–5; Southern, 169–70, 341.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 32.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39–40; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; Odahl, 77; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16; Potter, 344–5; Southern, 169–70, 341.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27, 298; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39; Odahl, 77–78, 309; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
- ^ Mattingly, 233–34; Southern, 170, 341.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 27–28; Jones, 59; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61–62; Odahl, 78–79.
- ^ Jones, 59.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28–29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; Odahl, 79–80.
- ^ Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39.
- ^ Treadgold, 28.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28–29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; Odahl, 79–80; Rees, 160.
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 79–80.
- ^ Odahl, 79–80.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 16–17.
- ^ Odahl, 80–81.
- ^ Odahl, 81.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 81–82.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine, 39–40; Odahl, 81–83.
- ^ Odahl, 82–83.
- ^ Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier. " The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24. 9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–11.
- ^ Odahl, 86.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28.
- ^ Rodgers, 236.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3. 4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 40.
- ^ Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine, 40.
- ^ Zosimus, 2. 9. 2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine, 39.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–49.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
- ^ Odahl, 92.
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 33; Jones, 61.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37.
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34.
- ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20.
- ^ Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30. 1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40–41, 305.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.
- ^ Potter, 352.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–15; Potter, 352–53.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 6(7). 21. 5.
- ^ Virgil, Ecologues 4. The Bucolics (also called the Eclogues) is the first of the three major works of the Latin Poet Virgil. 10.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8. 16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8. 17; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 304; Jones, 66.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44; Odahl, 96.
- ^ Odahl, 96.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38; Odahl, 96.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine, 62.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37–39.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine, 62.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40; Curran, 66.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.
- ^ Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8. 15. 1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine, 65.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2. 5; Curran, 67.
- ^ Curran, 67.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 70–71.
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5. 1–3; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101–2.
- ^ Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 102, 317–18.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41–42; Odahl, 103.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103.
- ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103.
- ^ Jones, 71; Odahl, 103.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–4.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 104.
- ^ Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 71.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105.
- ^ Jones, 71.
- ^ Odahl, 104.
- ^ a b Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 72; Odahl, 107.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–8.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44. 8; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108.
- ^ a b Odahl, 108.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106.
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44. 4–6, tr. J. L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1. 27–29; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43, 306; Odahl, 105–6, 319–20.
- ^ Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113.
- ^ Cameron and Hall, 208.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 306; MacMullen, Constantine, 73; Odahl, 319.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 306; Cameron and Hall, 206–7; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 68.
- ^ MacMullen, Constantine, 78.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 108.
- ^ Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44–45.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 109.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45–46; Odahl, 109.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 46; Odahl, 109.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 46.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 44.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70.
- ^ Curran, 80–83.
- ^ Curran, 83–85.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109.
- ^ Curran, 101.
- ^ Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum, 5. 90, cited in Curran, 93–96.
- ^ Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 45.
- ^ Odahl, 109.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 24.
- ^ Drake, "Impact," 121–3.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 38–39.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 41–42.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 42–43.
- ^ a b MacMullen, Constantine.
- ^ Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (March 30, 2006 – September 3, 2006)
- ^ The edict granted Christians the right to practice their religion but did not restore any property to them. Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35.
- '^ Rev. Edward Malloy C. S. C. , Malloy Discusses 'just war (The Observer 4-28-08)
- ^ McBrien Catholicismt 8-9
- ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55
- ^ Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 61
- ^ Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60
- ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55-56
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14-15
- ^ The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) q. 15
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16
- ^ Life of Constantine Vol. III Ch. XVIII by Eusebius; The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present
- ^ Guthrie, 325–6.
- ^ Guthrie,these deaths were because crispus was the son of constantines first wife, and he was the heir to the throne. Fausta wanted her own son to take the throne, so she lied by saying to constantine that crispus would try to over throw him to take the throne, so constantine had crispus killed. He later found out that it was Fausta really trying to overthrow him, so he had Fausta killed. 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 70–72.
- ^ Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 72.
- ^ a b Guthrie, 326–27.
- ^ Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 71–72.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4. 58–60.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4. 61.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4. 62.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4. 62. 4.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82.
- ^ Marilena Amerise, 'Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande. "
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4. 64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine," 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82.
- ^ Julian, Orations 1. 18. b.
- ^ Origo Constantini 35.
- ^ Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI. 16.
- ^ Eutropius, Breviarium X. 8. 2.
- ^ Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine," 148–9.
- ^ Because he was so old, he could not be submerged in water to be baptised, and therefore, the rules of baptism were changed to what they are today, having water placed on the forhead alone. In this period infant baptism, though practiced (usually in circumstances of emergency) had not yet become a matter of routine in the west. Thomas M. Finn, Early Christian Baptism and the Catechumenate: East and West Syria. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press/Michael Glazier (1992); Philip Rousseau, "Baptism". Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Post Classical World. Eds. G. W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, and Oleg Grabar. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press (1999).
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 75–76.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 71, figure 9.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 72.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 91.
- ^ Seidel, 237–239.
- ^ Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 83–87.
- ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305.
- ^ Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301.
- ^ Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–3.
- ^ Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–7.
- ^ Fubini, 79–86.
- ^ Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, 132–33.
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See also
External links
- Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, Constantine I
- 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of Stony Brook School (grades 7-12). The Colossus of Constantine was a colossal Acrolithic statue of Constantine the Great ( c Constantinian shift is a term used by Anabaptist and Post-Christendom theologians to describe the political and theological aspects of the 4th century The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian Donatus Magnus) were followers of a belief considered a Schism by the broader churches of the Lars Brownworth, a former United States history and political science teacher at the Stony Brook School, is the creator of the top 50 podcast 12 Byzantine Rulers The History The Stony Brook School (SBS is a private Christian boarding High school for boys and girls grades 7-12 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.
- Constantine I in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
- Constantine the Great A site about Constantine the Great and his bronze coins emphasizing history using coins, with many resources including reverse types issued and reverse translations. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
- House of Constantine bronze coins Illustrations and descriptions of coins of Constantine the Great and his relatives.
- BBC North Yorkshire's site on Roman York, Yorkshire and Constantine the Great
| Preceded by Constantius Chlorus |
Roman Emperor 306–337 with Galerius, Licinius and Maximinus Daia |
Succeeded by Constantius II, Constantine II and Constans |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Constantine I |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Constantinus, Flavius Valerius Aurelius;Constantine, Saint;Constantine the Great; |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Roman Emperor |
| DATE OF BIRTH | c. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 27 February 272 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Naissus |
| DATE OF DEATH | 22 May 337 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | |
Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Events By Topic Roman Empire Emperor Aurelian reconquers the kingdom of Palmyra, composed of Syria, Egypt Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their
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