A conspiracy theory alleges a coordinated group is and/or was secretly working together to commit illegal or wrongful actions including hiding the existence of the group and its activities. In notable cases the hypothesis contradicts what was or is represented as the mainstream explanation for historical or current events. The phrase is also used dismissively to label hypothetical speculation as being untrue or outlandish.

Contents 1 Terminology 2 Conspiracism 3 Criticism of conspiracy theories 3.1 Testing the validity of conspiracy theories 3.1.1 The "Rationality Theorem" 4 Controversy 4.1 Usage 4.2 Proven historical conspiracies 5 Study of conspiracism 5.1 Psychological origins 5.1.1 Projection 5.1.2 Epistemic bias 5.1.3 Clinical psychology 5.2 Socio-political origins 5.2.1 Disillusionment 5.2.2 Media tropes 6 Political use of conspiracy theories 6.1 Anti-Semitism and conspiracy theories 7 Examples of common conspiracy theories 8 Conspiracy theories in fiction 9 See also 9.1 Concepts 9.2 Known conspiracy theorists past and present 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 12.1 Conspiracist literature 13 External links

Terminology

The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for any conspiracy claim. In a political sense conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power To conspire means "to join in a secret agreement to do an unlawful or wrongful act or to use such means to accomplish a lawful end. "^[1] However, conspiracy theory is also used to indicate a narrative genre that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies, any of which might have far-reaching social and political implications if true. A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set

The first recorded use of the phrase "conspiracy theory" dates to the year 1909. Originally it was a neutral term; during the political upheaval of the 1960s the term acquired its current derogatory sense. ^[2] It entered the supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary as late as 1997. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English ^[3]

In an early essay by Daniel Pipes "adapted from a study prepared for the CIA", Pipes attempts to pin down what beliefs distinguish 'the conspiracy mentality' from 'more conventional patterns of thought': appearances deceive; conspiracies drive history; nothing is haphazard; the enemy always gains; power, fame, money, and sex account for all ^[4]. Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam.

The term "conspiracy theory" is frequently used by mainstream scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of folklore similar to an urban legend, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with particular methodological flaws. Popular culture (or pop culture) is the Culture — patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance — History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological An urban legend or urban myth is a form of modern Folklore consisting of stories thought to be factual by those circulating them Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" ^[5] The term is also used pejoratively to dismiss claims that are alleged by critics to be misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, irrational, or otherwise unworthy of serious consideration. Words and phrases are pejorative if they imply disapproval or contempt For example "Conspiracy nut" and "conspiracy theorist" are used as pejorative terms. Some whose theories or speculations are labeled a "conspiracy theory" reject the term as prejudicial.

Conspiracism

A world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history is sometimes termed "conspiracism". The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Richard Hofstadter ( August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American Historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History Paranoia is a disturbed thought process characterized by excessive Anxiety or Fear, often to the point of Irrationality and Delusion. The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American Historian Richard J Bernard Bailyn's classic The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in America during the time preceding the American Revolution. Bernard Bailyn (b 1922 Hartford Connecticut) is an American historian author and professor specializing in U In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" ^[6] The term conspiracism was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic work in conspiracy theories and conspiracism presents a range of hypotheses as a basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Karl Popper, Michael Barkun, Robert Alan Goldberg, Daniel Pipes, Mark Fenster, Mintz, Carl Sagan, George Johnson, and Gerald Posner. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. Carl Edward Sagan ( November 9 1934 &ndash December 20 1996) was an American Astronomer, astrochemist, author George Johnson (born January 20 1952 in Fayetteville Arkansas) is a science writer and author working from Santa Fe New Mexico. Gerald Posner (born 1954 is an investigative journalist and Author of several books including Case Closed (1993 which explores the John F

According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":^[7]

"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology". ^[8]

Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been numerous others. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party ^[9] In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to have some basis in facts. (for examples, see "Conspiracies vs. conspiracy theories")^[10][11] The idea that history itself is controlled by large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by historian Bruce Cumings:

"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory. A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment ' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities. "^[12]

The term conspiracism is used in the work of Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and Matthew N. Michael Kelly ( March 17 1957 – April 3 2003) was an Editor-at-large of the Atlantic Monthly and a columnist John Foster "Chip" Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is an American Investigative journalist and Photojournalist specializing Lyons.

According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm". ^[13]

Criticism of conspiracy theories

Conspiracy theories are the subject of broad critique by academics, politicians, and the media. A politician (from Greek " Polis " is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of Politics or a person "Popular press" redirects here note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint "The Popular Press"

Testing the validity of conspiracy theories

Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case:

• Occam's razor - is the alternative story more complicated and therefore less probable than the mainstream story?
• Logic - Do the proofs offered follow the rules of logic, or do they employ Fallacies of logic?
• Methodology - are the proofs offered for the argument well constructed, i. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. A fallacy is a component of an Argument which being demonstrably flawed in its Logic or form renders the argument invalid in whole Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" e. , using sound methodology? Is there any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory?
• Whistleblowers - how many people — and what kind — have to be loyal conspirators?
• Falsifiability - Is it possible to demonstrate that specific claims of the theory are true, or are they "unfalseifiable"?

The US academic Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory as more or less the opposite of institutional analysis, which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behaviour of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, e. This is an article about a term For the 2008 RTÉ drama see Whistleblower (TV series. Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Institutional analysis is that part of the Social sciences which studies how Institutions i g. scholarly documents or mainstream media reports, rather than secretive coalitions of individuals. "Popular press" redirects here note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint "The Popular Press" ^[14][15]

The "Rationality Theorem"

One criticism of conspiracy theories is that they rely on a certain worldview which may or may not be correct. Graham Allison, a political scientist, developed this argument in his book, Essence of Decision, and informally named it the "rationality theorem". Graham Tillett Allison Jr (born 23 March 1940) is an American Political scientist renowned for his contribution in the late 1960s and early This is a list of notable political scientists See the List of political theorists for those who study politics without using the Scientific method. Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis is an analysis by Political scientist Graham T The rationality theorem is a theory introduced by Political scientist Graham Allison in his book Essence of Decision Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis

Basically, Allison argued:

• Many theories - including conspiracy theories - rely on the assumption of rational expectations. Rational expectations is an assumption used in many contemporary macroeconomic models, and also in other areas of contemporary Economics and Game theory Under this assumption, events and decisions are explained by the rational responses of groups and individuals.
• However, Allison pointed out that groups and individuals do not always act in a rational manner.
• Allison argued that by using rationalistic thinking, individuals automatically take a "black box" approach to problems, meaning that they concentrate on data that was available and the results, but failed to consider other factors, such as bureaucracy, misunderstandings, disagreements, etc. Black box is a technical term for a device or system or object when it is viewed primarily in terms of its input and output characteristics Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government
• Finally, Allison argued that rationalistic thinking in general violates the scientific law of falsifiability, as according to the rationality theorem, there exists no event or groups of events that cannot be explained in a rational and purposeful manner. Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment

Although Allison primarily studied the Cuban Missile Crisis, in Essence, he illustrated the rationality theorem by making reference to the Attack on Pearl Harbor, specifically the theory that U. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. The attack on Pearl Harbor (or Hawaii Operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters) was a surprise Military strike conducted by S. decisionmakers must have purposefully allowed the attack to be pulled off.

Allison argued that, for this specific conspiracy theory to hold, analysts must first make the assumption that officials act in a rational manner, and that these officials had full access to all information that indicated the attack was imminent.

However, by examining additional internal evidence, Allison argued that while, from a black-box perspective, the U. S. had enough evidence of the Pearl Harbor attack, a combination of bureaucracy and misunderstandings was the real reason why the attack succeeded. For example, Allison noted that evidence of the upcoming attack was scattered among different governmental departments, and was not immediately combined to create an entire picture. Likewise, some decision makers misinterpreted the data at hand - on December 7, 1941, the base at Pearl Harbor actually was on alert, but the alert was for possible Japanese sabotage, not an all-out aerial attack. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening an enemy oppressor or employer through subversion obstruction disruption and/or destruction

Controversy

Aside from controversies over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see catalog below), the general discussion of conspiracy theory is itself a matter of some public contestation. A controversy or dispute is a commencement of a conflict between statements of accepted fact and a new or unaccepted proposal that disagrees with argues against

Usage

The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim without examination, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value.

Given this popular understanding of the term, it is conceivable that the term might be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Disinterested observers will compare an allegation's features with those of the category listed above, in order to determine whether a given usage is legitimate or prejudicial.

Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. In the Soviet Union, Psychiatry was used for punitive purposes Critics of this view claim that the argument bears little weight and that the claim itself serves to expose the paranoia common with conspiracy theorists. In any case, it's worth noting that the term "conspiracy" itself well predates the term "conspiracy theory," which point illustrates the fact that conspiracy is and long has been a very real human behavior, while the legitimacy of the very recent concept of "conspiracy theory" remains much more open to debate. A similar complication occurs for terms such as UFO, which literally means "unidentified flying object" but connotes alien spacecraft, a concept also associated with some conspiracy theories, and thus possessing a certain social stigma. Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms.

The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators.

When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e. g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such. The House Committee on Un-American Activities ( HUAC or HCUA 1938–1975 was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives.

Further difficulties arise from ambiguity regarding the term theory. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. In popular usage, this term is often used to refer to unfounded or weakly-based speculation, leading to the idea that "It's not a conspiracy theory if it's actually true". ^[16]

Proven historical conspiracies

Despite the speculative nature of many conspiracy theories, mainstream world history contains numerous proven conspiracies, some of which were not the subject of any widespread speculation until they were exposed. Historical conspiracies include:

• The Pazzi conspiracy, which included the Pope, of the late 1400s. The Pazzi family were Tuscan nobles who were Bankers in Florence in the 14th century
• The Main Plot of 1603
• The Bye Plot of 1603
• The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
• The conspiracy of 1865 to assassinate U. The Main Plot (or "the treason at Maine" --referring to the traditional province of Maine, near the present Le Mans France was a Conspiracy The Bye Plot was a conspiracy by a Catholic priest William Watson, to kidnap King James I of England and force him to repeal Anti-Catholic The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 or the Powder Treason, as it was known at the time was a failed Assassination attempt by a group of provincial English S. President Abraham Lincoln and members of his cabinet
• The French government's attempted cover-up following Emile Zola's accusations in the Dreyfus Affair, starting in 1894. Abraham Lincoln (February 12 1809 &ndash April 15 1865 the sixteenth President of the United States, successfully led his country through its greatest internal Émile François Zola ( (2 April 1840 &ndash 29 September 1902 was an influential French Writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s
• The 1903 efforts by the Tsar's secret police to foment anti-Semitism by presenting The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an authentic text. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы ^[17]
• The 1939 Operation Himmler and its Gleiwitz incident
• Operation Mockingbird, from 1948. Operation Himmler (less often known as Operation Konserve or Operation Canned Goods) was a Nazi Germany False flag project to create the appearance The Gleiwitz incident was a staged attack on 31 August, 1939 against the German Radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz Operation Mockingbird was a secret Central Intelligence Agency campaign to influence domestic and foreign media beginning in the 1950s In 1976, then CIA director George H.W. Bush ordered that paid media recruiting would be prohibited. George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993
• The MKULTRA mind control program, from 1953 to late 1960s
• The 1954 Lavon affair
• The 1962 Operation Northwoods
• The 1969 Manson Family murders
• The 1972 Watergate burglary and cover-up
• The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack
• The 1987 Iran-Contra Affair
• The 1995 Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway

Some theorists, like Charles Pigden argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. Mind control is a broad range of psychological tactics able to subvert an individual's control of his own thinking, behavior emotions or decisions The Lavon Affair refers to the scandal over a failed Israeli Covert operation in Egypt known as Operation Susannah, in which Israeli military Operation Northwoods, or Northwoods, was a False flag Conspiracy plan proposed within the United States government in 1962 The Watergate scandals were a series of Political scandals during the presidency of Richard Nixon that resulted in the Indictment of several of Nixon's The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack was the Food poisoning of more than 750 individuals in The Dalles, Oregon, United States through the The Iran-Contra affair was a political scandal which was revealed in November 1986 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration. The Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway, usually referred to in the Japanese media as the, was an act of Domestic terrorism perpetrated by members of Aum Pigden, in his article "Conspiracy Theories and the Conventional Wisdom" argues that not only do conspiracies occur but that any educated member of society will be believe in at least one of them; we are all, in fact, Conspiracy Theorists. Authors and publishers, such as Robert Anton Wilson and Disinfo, use proven conspiracies as evidence of what a secret plot can accomplish. Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (born Robert Edward Wilson, January 18, 1932 &ndash January 11, 2007) was an American The Disinformation Company is a privately held American publishing company that specializes in current affairs titles that seek to expose Disinformation. In doing so, they demonstrate that the label "conspiracy theory" does not necessarily indicate that a theory is false. Theories cited in making this case include those listed above as well as:

• the Mafia
• the Business Plot to overthrow the U. The Mafia (also known as Cosa Nostra) is a Sicilian Criminal Secret society which is believed to have first developed in the mid-19th century The Business Plot (also the Plot Against FDR and the White House Putsch) was a political conspiracy in 1933 wherein wealthy businessmen and corporations S. government led at the time by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933
• various CIA involvements in overseas coups d'état
• the 1991 Testimony of Nayirah before the US Congress to rally the support of the US public to launch the Gulf War
• the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male
• the General Motors streetcar conspiracy
• the plot by the British Secret Service to destabilize Prime Minister Harold Wilson, among others. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all "Nurse Nayirah" ( Nayirah al-Sabah) was a 15-year old Kuwaiti girl who alleged that she had witnessed the murder of infant children in Kuwait, in verbal The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Black Man (also known as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Pelkola Syphilis Study, Public Health Service Syphilis Study The Great American Streetcar Scandal is a Conspiracy theory according to which Streetcar systems throughout the United States were dismantled and replaced James Harold Wilson Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, PC (11 March 1916 &ndash 24 May 1995 was one of the most prominent British politicians
• the plot by some gaullists of the French Secret Service to destabilize future president Georges Pompidou, known as the Markovic affair
• the series of incidents in Italy connected to the so called "strategy of tension"
• Operation Gladio

These arguments also suggest that interested readers do their own research to come to their own conclusions. Gaullism (Gaullisme is a French political ideology based on the thought and action of Charles de Gaulle. Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou (5 July 1911 2 April 1974 was President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974 The Markovic affair was a Political scandal in France in the late 1960s involving French President George Pompidou and Movie star Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A strategy of tension (strategia della tensione is an alleged way used by world powers to divide manipulate and control Public opinion using Fear, Propaganda Gladio ( Italian, from Latin Gladius, meaning Sword) is a code name denoting the clandestine NATO " Stay-behind This particular suggestion is often missing from conspiracy theories that lack merit.

The argument is often advanced there cannot be a conspiracy without leakers or whistle blowers. Given the success of the British government in getting thousands of people to keep the ULTRA secret -- and thereby ensuring that no reliable history of World War II could be published until the 1970s -- it is apparent that this is not necessarily a reliable indicator. ULTra ("Urban Light Transport" is a Personal rapid transit system from Advanced Transport Systems Ltd a company based in Cardiff, Wales. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

Study of conspiracism

Belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy eventually provoked an unprecedented public response directed against the official version of the case as expounded in the Report of the Warren Commission. The assassination of John F Kennedy, the thirty-fifth President of the United States, took place on Friday November 22 1963 in Dallas Texas John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, known unofficially as The Warren Commission, was established on November 29, 1963

Psychological origins

According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory tends to believe in others; a person who does not believe in one conspiracy theory tends not to believe another. Mental health professional A psychologist is a practitioner of Psychology, the systematic investigation of the mind including Behavior, Cognition, ^[18] This may be caused by differences in the information upon which parties rely in formulating their conclusions.

Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness is common in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories, and may be powerful enough alone to lead to the first formulating of the idea. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In Psychology and Cognitive science, confirmation bias is a tendency to search for or interpret new information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions and avoids In Psychology, cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling or stress caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. Communal reinforcement is a social Phenomenon in which a concept or idea is repeatedly asserted in a Community, regardless of whether sufficient Empirical

Some research carried out at the University of Kent, UK suggests people may be influenced by conspiracy theories without being aware that their attitudes have changed. The University of Kent is a plate glass campus University in Kent, England. After reading popular conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, participants in this study correctly estimated how much their peers' attitudes had changed, but significantly underestimated how much their own attitudes had changed to become more in favour of the conspiracy theories. On 31 August 1997, Diana Princess of Wales died as a result of injuries sustained in a car crash in the Pont de l'Alma road The authors conclude that conspiracy theories may therefore have a 'hidden power' to influence people's beliefs. ^[19]

Projection

Some historians have pointed out the element of psychological projection in conspiracism; that is, the attribution to the supposed "conspirators" of undesirable characteristics of the self. In Psychology, psychological projection (or projection bias) is a Defense mechanism in which one attributes one’s own unacceptable or unwanted thoughts Richard Hofstadter, in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, stated that:

. Richard Hofstadter ( August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American Historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American Historian Richard J . . it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship. . . the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.

Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments. "^[20]

Epistemic bias

It is possible that certain basic human epistemic biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause. ^[21] The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events' — in which the president died — than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal.

Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who stands to gain?). Cui bono ("To whose benefit?" literally "as a benefit to whom?" a Double dative construction is a Latin Adage that is used either This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal.

Clinical psychology

For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, mean world syndrome. Paranoia is a disturbed thought process characterized by excessive Anxiety or Fear, often to the point of Irrationality and Delusion. Denial (also called abnegation) is a Defense mechanism postulated by Sigmund Freud, in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Mean World Syndrome is a Phenomenon whereby the violence-related content of Mass media convinces viewers that the world is more dangerous than it actually is and ^[22]

Socio-political origins

Christopher Hitchens represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Christopher Eric Hitchens (born April 13, 1949) is a British Author, Journalist, Literary critic and American Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic (or other type of) society.

Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance. ^[23]

Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving Goffman) require. Need for closure is a psychological term used to describe an individual’s desire for a quick answer as opposed to enduring ambiguity Erving Goffman ( June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982) was a Canadian and American sociologist and writer Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are experiencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment. A moral panic can be defined as "the intensity of feeling expressed by a large number of people about a specific group of people who appear to threaten the social order at a given In Sociology and Critical social theory, alienation refers to an individual's estrangement from traditional community and others in general

Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67). Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim 's early 12" and EP releases recorded between 1995 and 1998

Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I:

Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose epistemic 'blind spots'. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic.

Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind spots' in the common or official interpretations of events (Fenster, 1999).

Disillusionment

In the late 20th century, falling election participation and declines in other key metrics of social engagement were noted by several observers. For a prominent example, see Robert D. Putnam's Bowling Alone thesis. Robert David Putnam (born 1941 in Port Clinton Ohio) is a political scientist and professor at Harvard University. Bowling Alone America's Declining Social Capital (1995 is an essay by Robert D Those who were most influenced by this period, the so-called "Generation X," are characterized by their cynicism towards traditional institutions and authorities, offering a case example of the context of political dis-empowerment detailed above. Generation X is a term used to describe generations in the United States and other countries born between the approximate years of 1965 to 1981 the late 1950s and 1960s or Cynicism (Kυνισμός originally comprised the various philosophies of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by

In that context, a typical individual will tend to be more isolated from the kinds of peer networks that grant access to broad sources of information, and may instinctively distrust any statement or claim made by certain people, media, and other authority-bearing institutions. For some individuals, the consequence may be a tendency to attribute anything bad that happens to the distrusted authority. For example, some people attribute the September 11, 2001 attacks to a conspiracy involving the U. S. government (or disfavored politicians), The CIA, Israeli Mossad, Pakistani ISI, etc. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Mossad ( HaMossad leModi'in v'leTafkidim Meyuhadim) (המוסד למודיעין ולתפקידים מיוחדים - Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations , instead of or along with Islamic terrorists associated with Al-Qaeda (see 9/11 conspiracy theories. Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The A variety of conspiracy theories question the mainstream account of the September 11 attacks in the United States. ) Such charges may also be colored with political motivation, but some "inside job" advocates such as Dr. David Ray Griffin--who himself is a conservative Republican--assert that one does not have to be against the current administration to see inconsistencies in the official narrative. Griffin also notes myriad times in his writings that the official story of 9/11--propounded by the Bush Administration--is also a conspiracy theory, which is fueled by a similar disillusionment of Middle Eastern religious idealism. Similar charges (in some circles) were made that the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration was in some way culpable for the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The attack on Pearl Harbor (or Hawaii Operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters) was a surprise Military strike conducted by

Media tropes

Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts. ^[24] If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of social phenomena. Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance.

A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item. ^[25] Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events.

Political use of conspiracy theories

In his two volume work The Open Society & Its Enemies, 1938–1943, Popper used the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the ideologies driving fascism, Nazism and communism. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The Open Society & Its Enemies). The History of Athens is one of the longest of any city in Europe and in the world Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece

In his critique of Marx and the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena. "^[26]

He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy. "^[26]

Popper proposed the term "the conspiracy theory of society" to criticize the methodology of Marx, Hitler and others whom he deemed to be deluded by "historicism" - the reduction of history to an overt and naive distortion via a crude formulaic analysis usually predicated on an agenda replete with unsound presuppositions. ^[27]

Anti-Semitism and conspiracy theories

The contemporary form of anti-Semitism is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European aristocracy, whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations ^[28]

Antisemitic conspiracy theories have been conceived throughout history. According to Kenneth S. Stern,

"Historically, Jews have not fared well around conspiracy theories. Kenneth S Stern is an attorney and an author He is director on Antisemitism, Hate studies and extremism for the American Jewish Committee. Such ideas fuel anti-Semitism. The myths that Jews killed Christ, or poisoned wells, or killed Christian children to bake matzo, or "made up" the Holocaust, or plot to control the world, do not succeed each other; rather, the list of anti-Semitic canards gets longer. For the American death metal band see Deicide (band Deicide is the killing of a god either the God of a monotheistic religion For the logical fallacy see Poisoning the well. Well-poisoning is the act of malicious manipulation of potable water resources in Blood libels against Jews are false accusations that Jews use Human blood in certain aspects of their Religious rituals and holidays Although Holocaust denial is the claim that the Genocide of Jews during World War II —usually referred to as The Holocaust —did not occur in the The militia movement today believes in the conspiracy theory of the Protocols, even if some call it something else and never mention Jews. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы From the perspective of history, we know that this is the type of climate in which anti-Semitism can grow. "^[29]

Examples of common conspiracy theories

Main article: List of conspiracy theories

• Extraterrestrials are being hidden by governments either to preserve public order or as part of a deal between aliens and a secret government. A Conspiracy is defined by law as an agreement by two or more persons to commit a crime fraud or other wrongful act Extraterrestrial life is Life originating outside of the Earth. Extraterrestrial life is Life originating outside of the Earth. The latter is a major theme of the popular The X-Files TV show. A theme, from Old French tesme, is a broad idea in a story or literary work or a message or lesson conveyed by a written text The X-Files is a Peabody, Golden Globe and Emmy Award -winning American Science fiction television series created by Chris Carter
• 9/11 conspiracy theories, theories which attempt to explain what happened on 9/11, such as elements within the intelligence community committing a psychological warfare operation. A variety of conspiracy theories question the mainstream account of the September 11 attacks in the United States.

• The John F. Kennedy assassination was an operation carried out by government officials and not Lee Harvey Oswald acting alone. The assassination of John F Kennedy, the thirty-fifth President of the United States, took place on Friday November 22 1963 in Dallas Texas Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18 1939 &ndash November 24 1963 was according to three United States government investigations the assassin of U Oliver Stone's film JFK is based on this premise. William Oliver Stone (born 15 September) is an American Film director and Screenwriter. JFK is a 1991 American film directed by Oliver Stone. The film was released on December 20 1991
• The New World Order theories claiming a powerful and secretive group plans to institute a one-world government. New World Order refers to a Conspiracy in which a powerful and secretive group is plotting to eventually rule the world via an autonomous World
• World domination by Jews, one of the oldest extant conspiracy theories (often incorporating various existing or historical secret societies and most major conspiracy theories)
• The Apollo Moon-Landing Hoax Theory suggests that some or all elements of the Apollo missions were faked by NASA. A Conspiracy is defined by law as an agreement by two or more persons to commit a crime fraud or other wrongful act PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Secret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program
• The theory of satanic ritual abuse, a widespread belief that a conspiracy of child molesters and satanists are engaging in child sexual abuse. Satanic ritual abuse ( SRA, sometimes known as ritual abuse, cult related abuse, ritualized abuse, sadistic ritual abuse, ritual
• The Paul is Dead theory, stating that Paul McCartney of The Beatles died in 1966 and was replaced by a look-alike while clues were hidden in songs and album cover art. " Paul is dead" is an Urban legend alleging that Paul McCartney of the British rock band The Beatles died in 1966 and Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE (born 18 June 1942 is an English rock Singer, Bass guitarist songwriter Composer, The Beatles were a pop and rock band from Liverpool, England formed in 1960 A look-alike is a living person who closely resembles another living person

Conspiracy theories in fiction

Main article: Conspiracy theories (fictional)

Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in thrillers and science fiction. The conspiracy thriller (or paranoid thriller) is a subgenre of thriller fiction. The thriller is a broad Genre of Literature, Film, Gaming and Television. Complex history is recast as a morality play in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them. Morality Play is a detective story by Barry Unsworth, a Man Booker Prize -winning author for his book Sacred Hunger Published in 1996 by Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the cui bono? aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive.

Dr. Strangelove was a 1964 comedy about the incredulity of modern nuclear warfare. The end of the world is precipitated by the delusions of General Jack D. Ripper who happens to be in control of a SAC nuclear air wing. General Ripper believes there is a Communist conspiracy which threatens to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the American people with fluoridated water. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Water fluoridation is the addition of a chemical to increase the concentration of Fluoride Ions in Drinking water with the purpose of reducing the

Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one or more of them are true. Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 American action / Paranoid thriller Film directed by Richard Donner. Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson, AO (born January 3 1956

The X-Files was a popular television show during the 1990s and early 2000s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, who were sometimes helped by a group of conspiracy theorists known as The Lone Gunmen. The X-Files is a Peabody, Golden Globe and Emmy Award -winning American Science fiction television series created by Chris Carter Special Agent Fox William Mulder, nicknamed "Spooky" Mulder is a Fictional character played by David Duchovny on the 1993 - 2002 Special Agent Dana Katherine Scully MD is a Fictional character on the Fox Broadcasting Co The Lone Gunmen are a trio of Fictional characters Richard "Ringo" Langly Melvin Frohike and John Fitzgerald Byers who had recurring roles on The X-Files Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the U.S. government, led by an individual known only as the Cigarette Smoking Man and an even more mysterious international "Syndicate". The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Cigarette Smoking Man (also known as Cancer Man or CGB Spender) was a character played by William B The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre discussed above. A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment

Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the Templars and including the Bavarian Illuminati, the Rosicrucians, hollow Earth enthusiasts, the Cathars, and even the Jesuits. Umberto Eco (born 5 January 1932 is an Italian Medievalist, semiotician, Philosopher, literary critic and Novelist, best Foucault's Pendulum (original title Il pendolo di Foucault) is a Novel by Italian Novelist and Philosopher Umberto The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order "Illuminata" redirects here For the 1998 John Turturro film see Illuminata (film. The term Rosicrucian (symbol the Rose Cross) describes a secret society of mystics allegedly formed in late mediaeval Germany, holding a doctrine "built on Hollow Earth is a belief that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and possibly a habitable inner surface The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order

See also

• 9/11 conspiracy theories
• Assassination
• Black helicopters
• Boris III of Bulgaria
• Espionage
• Freemasons
• Government Warehouse
• Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
• Illuminati
• Bilderberg Group
• Kleptocracy
• Liberty Lobby (defunct)
• Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories
• Percy Bysshe Shelley
• Sovereign Citizen Movement
• Vatican Secret Archives
• Robert Anton Wilson

Concepts

Apophenia Cabal Clustering illusion Consensus Cock-up theory Conspiracy? (the History Channel) Conspiracy theories (fictional)

Conspiracy in criminal law Category:Conspiracy theorists List of conspiracy theories Mind Control Paranoia Paranoia (magazine) The Paranoid Style in American Politics

Known conspiracy theorists past and present

The following people are known to have proposed conspiracy theories:

Art Bell (born 1945) - American founder and longtime host of the paranormal-themed radio program Coast to Coast AM. A variety of conspiracy theories question the mainstream account of the September 11 attacks in the United States. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. Black Helicopter is a United States Boston, Massachusetts based Hard rock band on Thurston Moore 's Ecstatic Peace Boris III Tsar of Bulgaria (January 30 1894 &ndash August 28 1943 originally Boris Klemens Robert Maria Pius Ludwig Stanislaus Xaver ( Boris Clement Robert Mary Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM "Illuminata" redirects here For the 1998 John Turturro film see Illuminata (film. The Bilderberg Group, Bilderberg conference, or Bilderberg Club is an unofficial annual invitation-only conference of around A kleptocracy (sometimes cleptocracy, occasionally kleptarchy) ( root klepto+kratein = rule by thieves) is a term applied to a Liberty Lobby was a Political advocacy organization which existed in the United States between 1955 and 2001. Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is a frequently vandalized article and vandalism is reverted immediately Percy Bysshe Shelley (August 4 1792 – July 8 1822 ˈpɝːsɪ ˈbɪʃ ˈʃɛlɪ was one of the major English Romantic poets and is widely considered to be among The sovereign citizen movement is a network of American litigants who claim to be "sovereign citizens" that is people who have certain rights under English common The Vatican Secret Archives ( Latin: Archivum Secretum Apostolicum Vaticanum) located in Vatican City, is the central repository for all of the acts promulgated Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (born Robert Edward Wilson, January 18, 1932 &ndash January 11, 2007) was an American A cabal is a number of people united in some close design usually to promote their private views and interests in a church, State, or other community often The clustering illusion refers to the tendency to erroneously perceive small samples from random distributions as having significant "streaks" or "clusters" caused Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in Hanlon's razor is an Adage which reads Never attribute to malice that which can be adequately explained by stupidity Conspiracy? is a documentary Television series that was created and originally aired on The History Channel (as of December 2006, it is being History, formerly known as The History Channel, is a Satellite and Cable TV channel, with shows on historical events and persons&mdashoften The conspiracy thriller (or paranoid thriller) is a subgenre of thriller fiction. In the Criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between Natural persons to break the law at some time in the future and in some cases with at least one overt act A Conspiracy is defined by law as an agreement by two or more persons to commit a crime fraud or other wrongful act Mind control is a broad range of psychological tactics able to subvert an individual's control of his own thinking, behavior emotions or decisions Paranoia is a disturbed thought process characterized by excessive Anxiety or Fear, often to the point of Irrationality and Delusion. Since 1992 Paranoia The Conspiracy & Paranormal Reader has presented alternative views and marginalized theories of the inner workings of the Cryptocracy. The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American Historian Richard J Arthur W "Art" Bell III (born June 17, 1945) is an American broadcaster and Author, known primarily as the founder and Paranormal is an Umbrella term used to describe unusual Phenomena or experiences that lack an obvious Scientific explanation Coast to Coast AM is an American late-night Syndicated Radio Talk show which deals with a variety of topics but most frequently Peter Beter (1921 - 1987) - American lawyer and author who claimed that world events were being controlled by three factions, the Rockefeller family, the "Bolshevik-Zionist axis," and the Kremlin. Peter David Beter (1921–1987 was an American Attorney. He ran for governor in 1968 in the Republican Party primary in the state of Virginia The Rockefeller family, the renowned Cleveland family of John D The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the View01jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of the Kolomna Kremlin]] Kremlin (Кремль Kreml) is the Russian word for "fortress" "citadel" or "castle" Mae Brussell (1922 - 1988) - American conspiracy theorist and radio personality, focusing on the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Mae Brussell ( May 29, 1922 &ndash October 3, 1988) was a Conspiracy theorist and Radio personality. A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment A radio personality (also known as a radio host or a radio presenter) is a person with an on-air position in radio broadcasting John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of William Guy Carr (1895 - 1959) - Canadian naval officer and author responsible for creating the American Illuminati demonology. William James Guy Carr ( RD Commander RCN ( R) ( June 2, 1895 - October 2 Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page "Illuminata" redirects here For the 1998 John Turturro film see Illuminata (film. Demonology (from Greek grc δαίμων daimōn, "demon" and grc -λογία -logia) is the systematic study of [30] Jack T. Chick (born 1924) - American publisher of comic book-style tracts, known as Chick Tracts, often depicting conspiracy theories featuring Satan, the Catholic Church, Communists, Muslims, rock musicians, scientists, and politicians, as well as other groups and subjects behind popular entertainment, role-playing games, and other perceived ills of modern culture. Jack Thomas Chick (born April 13, 1924) is an American Publisher, writer and comic book artist, and has been called the most published A comic book (often shortened to simply comic and sometimes called a comic paper or comic magazine) is a Magazine or Book of narrative A tract is a literary work, and in current usage usually Religious in nature Chick tracts are short Evangelical -themed tracts created by American publisher Jack Chick. A role-playing game ( RPG; often roleplaying game) is a Game in which the participants assume the roles of Fictional characters. James Shelby Downard (1913 - 1998) - American author who perceived occult symbolism, twilight language and synchronicity behind historical events in the 20th century. James Shelby Downard ( 13 March 1913 &ndash 16 March[[ 998]] was an American Conspiracy theorist whose works most of which have been The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden" Synchronicity is the Experience of two or more events which are causally unrelated occurring together in a meaningful manner David Emory - American talk radio host who asserts that an obscure, sinister, organization called the "Underground Reich" maintains the interests of the German industry, banking and finance, which survived World War II as a major part of the global capital elite. David Emory (born New York City, 1949 also known as Dave Emory is an American Talk radio host based in the San Francisco Bay Area. Talk radio is a Radio format containing discussion about topical issues World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Myron C. Fagan (1887 - 1972) - American writer, producer and director for film and theatre, who wrote and produced plays and pamphlets claiming the United Nations was a Communist front for one world government. Myron Coureval Fagan ( 31 October 1887 - 12 May 1972) was a Jewish American writer producer and director for film and theatre New World Order refers to a Conspiracy in which a powerful and secretive group is plotting to eventually rule the world via an autonomous World [31] Francis E. Dec (1926 - 1996) - Disbarred American lawyer from Hempstead, New York who is today known for having in the 1970s and 80s mass-mailed various rambling flyers and rants to randomly selected addressees all across the US, in which he purported to warn the public of an omnipotent machine-entity he referred to as the "World-wide Mad Deadly Communist Gangster Computer God. Francis E Dec ( January 6, 1926 – January 21, 1996) was an American from Hempstead New York known for his social-political New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous " Des Griffin - American author espousing a right-wing Christian view of global conspiracies and the New World Order. Des Griffin is an American Right-wing writer and Conspiracy theorist. New World Order refers to a Conspiracy in which a powerful and secretive group is plotting to eventually rule the world via an autonomous World Patrick Haseldine (born 1942) - British diplomat, dismissed by the Thatcher government in 1989 and who subsequently attempted to assemble a dossier of evidence to incriminate South Africa for the Lockerbie bombing. Patrick Haseldine is a former British FCO official who was dismissed in August 1989 by the then foreign secretary, John Major, for "various Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 Alternative theories of the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 suggest that Abdelbaset Ali Mohmed Al Megrahi, a Libyan agent who was convicted on 270 counts of murder for the bombing Stanley Hilton - American lawyer who filed a subsequently dismissed $7-billion lawsuit against Bush Administration officials, accusing them of complicity in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Stanley G Hilton is a San Francisco California, based Attorney, Political scientist, and former chief of staff for Bob Dole. Richard Hoagland (born 1945) - American author whose books claim that advanced civilizations exist or once existed on the Moon and Mars, and NASA and the United States government are conspiring to keep this secret. Richard C Hoagland (born April 25, 1945) is an author who claims that advanced civilizations exist or once existed on the Moon, Mars and on The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. Michael A. Hoffman II (born 1954) - American historian who posits conspiracies about Jewish control of the United States and about the Holocaust. Michael Anthony Hoffman II, (born 1954 New York) is an American historian and writer The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Leonard G. Horowitz - American author, former dentist, who claimed in a book, Emerging Viruses, that HIV/AIDS was engineered by the U. Leonard George Horowitz DMD, MA, MPH (b 1952-) is a former dentist a health industry entrepreneur and the author of a number of books pamphlets DVDs S. as a biological warfare agent. Reportedly inspired Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan to caution against vaccinating children; mentioned by Rev. The Nation of Islam ( NOI) (أمة الإسلام Ummah al-Islāmu) is a group founded in Detroit, Michigan, Louis Farrakhan (born Louis Eugene Walcott, May 11, 1933) is the Supreme Minister of the Nation of Islam as the National Representative Jeremiah Wright in support of Wright's similar claim. Jeremiah Alvesta Wright Jr (born September 22 1941 is the former Pastor Emeritus of the Trinity United Church of Christ (TUCC a Megachurch in Chicago David Icke (born 1952) - British writer and public speaker who claims that the world is ruled by a secret group called the "Global Elite" or "Illuminati," which he has linked to The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. David Vaughan Icke (pronounced /aɪk/ born 29 April 1952 is a British writer and public speaker who has devoted himself since 1990 to researching "who and what is really controlling "Illuminata" redirects here For the 1998 John Turturro film see Illuminata (film. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы Alex Jones (radio) Timothy F. LaHaye (born 1926) - joint author, with Jerry F. Jenkins, of the Left Behind novels. Alexander Emerick Jones (born February 11 1974 is an American Paleoconservative radio host and documentary filmmaker Timothy F LaHaye (b April 27, 1926 in Detroit Michigan) is an American evangelical Christian minister, Author Jerry Bruce Jenkins (born September 23, 1949 in Kalamazoo, Michigan) is an American Novelist and Left Behind A Novel of the Earth's Last Days is a best-selling novel by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B Lyndon H. LaRouche Jr. (born 1922) - American activist and self-styled politician whose publications rail against what he calls "Synarchism" and who, in spite of having received a felony conviction for mail fraud, has repeatedly sought election--thus far, without success--to the office of President of the United States. Views of Lyndon LaRouche Lyndon Hermyle LaRouche Jr (born September 8 1922 in Rochester New Hampshire) is an American Political activist and founder of several Synarchism (from Greek words meaning "to rule together" or "harmonious rule" is a word that has been used to describe several different political processes G. Edward Griffin Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde Texe Marrs Jordan Maxwell Thierry Meyssan Gary North Roberto Pinotti Lew Rockwell Christopher W. Ruddy John A. Stormer Webster Tarpley Michael Tsarion Robert Anton Wilson Émile Zola (1840 - 1902), published "J'accuse," which described his conspiracy theory which later became known as the Dreyfus affair. G Edward Griffin (born November 7 1931 is an American Film producer, author and political lecturer Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde (born 1939 was the Provincial medical officer of the Finnish Lapland Province with a Doctorate in Medicine Texe W Marrs is an American author and conspiracy theorist He lives in Spicewood, Texas. Jordan Maxwell aka Russell Pine ( 28 December 1940) is a researcher and independent Scholar in the fields of Astro-theology, Religion Thierry Meyssan is a French Journalist, Political activist and Conspiracy theorist. For the bisexual rights activist see Gary North (journalist. Gary Kilgore North (born 1942 is a writer and publisher from the Christian Roberto Pinotti was born in Venice, Italy, in 1944 Sociologist, Journalist and Author; he is the main Italian scholar in Ufology Llewellyn H Rockwell Jr (born 1 July 1944, Boston) widely known as Lew Rockwell, is an American Libertarian Christopher Ruddy is a conservative American journalist He is currently the CEO of Newsmax Media. John A Stormer (born February 9 1928 is an American Protestant Anti-communist writer Webster Griffin Tarpley is an author journalist lecturer and critic of US foreign and domestic policy Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (born Robert Edward Wilson, January 18, 1932 &ndash January 11, 2007) was an American Émile François Zola ( (2 April 1840 &ndash 29 September 1902 was an influential French Writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s Jim Marrs

Notes

References

• American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory"
• Barkun, Michael. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD) is an American Dictionary of the English language published by 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2
• Chase, Alston. 2003. Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02002-9
• Fenster, Mark. 1999. Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X
• Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5
• Hofstadter, Richard. Richard Hofstadter ( August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American Historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7
• Johnson, George 1983. Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. ISBN 0-87477-275-3
• Melley, Timothy. 1999. Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8
• Mintz, Frank P. 1985. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X
• Pipes, Daniel. Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. 1997. Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4
• ---. 1998. The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0
• Popper, Karl R. 1945. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1
• Posner, Gerald. Gerald Posner (born 1954 is an investigative journalist and Author of several books including Case Closed (1993 which explores the John F 1993. Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6
• Sagan, Carl. Carl Edward Sagan ( November 9 1934 &ndash December 20 1996) was an American Astronomer, astrochemist, author 1996. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X
• Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. Jonathan Vankin is an author and journalist Biography Vankin is a graduate of Brandeis University. 2004. The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2

Further reading

• Conspiracism, Political Research Associates
• Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert (2003). Panoply of the Absurd. Der Spiegel. Der Spiegel. Retrieved on 2006-06-06. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
• Parsons, Charlotte (2001). Why we need conspiracy theories. BBC News - Americas. BBC. Retrieved on 2006-06-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire.
• Meigs, James B. (2006). The Conspiracy Industry. Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc. . Retrieved on 2006-10-13. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees
• (2004) in Barry Coward: Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754635643.  
• (2003) in Peter Knight: Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576078124.  
• West, Harry G. and Todd Sanders (eds) Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822330240
• Rudmin, Floyd (2003). Conspiracy Theory As Naive Deconstructive History. newdemocracy. org. Retrieved on 2008-04-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland.

Conspiracist literature

• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
• Balsiger, David W. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы and Charles E. Sellier, Jr. (1977). The Lincoln Conspiracy. The Lincoln Conspiracy is a Book by David W Balsiger and Charles E Los Angeles: Schick Sun Classic Books. ISBN 1-56849-531-5
• Bryan, Gerald B.; Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini [1940] (2000). The "I AM" Activity is a religious movement founded in the early 1930s by Guy Ballard (1878&ndash1939 and his wife Edna (1886-1971 in Chicago Illinois Psychic Dictatorship in America. Paolini International LLC. ISBN 0-9666213-1-X.  
• Cooper, Milton William (1991). Milton William Cooper ( May 6, 1943 - November 5, 2001) was an American Writer, Shortwave broadcaster Behold a Pale Horse. Light Technology Publications. ISBN 0-929385-22-5.  
• Icke, David (2004). David Vaughan Icke (pronounced /aɪk/ born 29 April 1952 is a British writer and public speaker who has devoted himself since 1990 to researching "who and what is really controlling And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition. Bridge of Love. ISBN 0-9538810-5-9.  
• Levenda, Peter (2005). Peter Levenda is an author primarily on occult history He was president of the international division of Ortronics Inc Sinister Forces: Trilogy. Trine Day. ISBN 0-9752906-2-2.  
• Marrs, Texe (1996). Texe W Marrs is an American author and conspiracy theorist He lives in Spicewood, Texas. Project L. U. C. I. D. : The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System. Living Truth Publishers. ISBN 1-884302-02-5.  
• Tudge, Robin, and James McConnachie (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-445-2
• Pelley, William Dudley (1950). William Dudley Pelley ( March 12, 1890 &ndash July 1, 1965) was an American Fascist,who founded and led the Silver Legion Star Guests: Design for Mortality. Noblesville, Indiana: Soulcraft Press.  
• Robertson, Pat (1992). Marion Gordon "Pat" Robertson (born March 22 1930 is a controversial Televangelist from the United States. The New World Order. W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3.  
• Wilson, Robert Anton (2002). TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution, Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-169-2
• Yallop, David A. (1984). David Anthony Yallop (born 27 January 1937, London) is a British author who writes chiefly about unsolved crimes In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I. New York: Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0-553-05073-7
• York, Byron (2005). The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-8238-2
• Conspiracies, Conspiracy Theories and the Secrets of 9/11, by Mathias Bröckers. Mathias Bröckers is a writer journalist and longtime editor of the Berlin newspaper 'taz' ( Die tageszeitung) Sees conspiracy as a fundamental principle between cooperation and competition. Proposes a new science of "conspirology. "

External links

• The Economics of Conspiracy Theories
• An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory
• On the hunt for a conspiracy theory, CS Monitor article
• 'The Paranoid Style in American Politics' Richard Hofstadter, Harper's 1964 November
• Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy - A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community
• [1] - A forum about conspiracy theories. Richard Hofstadter ( August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American Historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History

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