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"Commons" redirects here. For other uses, see Commons (disambiguation).

Common land (a common), in England and Wales and the United States, is a piece of land owned by one person, but over which other people can exercise certain traditional rights, such as allowing their livestock to graze upon it. History The Roman occupation of Britain was the first period in which the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit (with the exception The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the name "common" for the land over which the rights are exercised. By extension, the term "commons" has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. Common land is also found in Scotland, although its extent is much reduced from the millions of acres that existed prior to the 17th century[1]. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

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Commons in England and Wales

The fact that land is common land does not mean it has no owner—all land in England and Wales is owned by someone. Common land is land over which people other than the owner also have rights. Those who have a right of common are known as commoners—the landowner retains other rights to the land, such as rights to minerals and large timber, and to any common rights left unexercised by the commoners.

Commons rights

Historically most rights of common were appurtenant to particular plots of land, and the commoner would be the person who, for the time being, was the occupier of a particular plot of land (or in the case of turbary, even a particular hearth). Some rights of common were said to be in gross, that is, they were unconnected with ownership or tenure of land. This was more usual in regions where commons are more extensive, such as in Northern England or in the Fens, but also included many village greens across England and Wales. The Fens, also known as the Fenland, is a geographic area in eastern England, in the United Kingdom. A village green is a common open area which is a part of a settlement Most land with appurtenant commons rights is adjacent to the common or even surrounded by it, but in a few cases it may be some considerable distance away.

Example rights of common are:

On most commons, rights of pasture and pannage for each commoner are tightly defined by number and type of animal. For example the occupier of a particular cottage might be allowed to graze fifteen cattle, four horses, ponies or donkeys, and fifty geese—the numbers allowed for their neighbours would probably be different. On some commons (such as the New Forest and adjoining commons), the rights are not limited by number, and instead a fee is paid each year for each animal turned out. The New Forest is an area of southern England which includes the largest remaining tracts of unenclosed pasture land heathland and Forest in the heavily-populated

Pasture commons

Pasture commons are those where the primary right is to pasture livestock. In the uplands they are largely moorland, on the coast they may be saltmarsh, sand dunes or cliffs, and on inland lowlands they may be downland, grassland, heathland or wood pasture, depending on the soil and history. Moorland or moor is a type of habitat found in upland areas characterised by low growing vegetation on Acidic soils A salt marsh is a type of Marsh that is a transitional intertidal between land and salty or Brackish water (e In physical Geography, a dune is a Hill of Sand built by Aeolian processes. In Geography and Geology, a cliff is a significant vertical or near vertical rock exposure A downland is an area of open Chalk Hills This term is especially used to describe the Chalk countryside in southern England. Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody Heaths are Shrubland habitats characterised by open low growing woody Vegetation, found on mainly infertile Acidic soils Wood pasture is a historical European land management system in which open woodland provided shelter and Forage for grazing animals particularly Sheep and Cattle

These habitats are often of very high nature conservation value, because of their very long continuity of management. Conservation can be confused with Conversation and vice versa

In the past, most pasture commons would have been grazed by mixtures of cattle, sheep and ponies (often also geese). The modern survival of grazing on pasture commons over the past century is uneven:

Over the past few years, sheep grazing on upland commons has been reduced, both as a conservation measure and as a result in changes in agricultural subsidies. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental Subsidy paid to Farmers and Agribusinesses to supplement their income manage the supply of agricultural Grazing is also being returned to many lowland commons for conservation reasons.

Pasture commons are often a characteristic shape. Where roads enter the common, the common boundary tends to have tapering points, including the road verges for some distance. The boundaries between the roads are often curved and concave. Enclosures surrounded by the common are often rounded in shape. These shapes are due to past piecemeal enclosure of the common, which avoided roads and tended to be done in curves to minimise the length of fencing needed.

Arable and haymeadow commons

Surviving commons are almost all pasture. In earlier times, arable farming and haymaking were also included in the commons system, with strips of land in the common arable fields and common haymeadows assigned annually by lot. The open field system was the prevalent Agricultural system in much of Europe from the Middle Ages to as recently as the 20th century in places Sortition, also known as allotment, is an equal-chance method of selection by some form of lottery such as drawing coloured pebbles from a bag When not in use for these purposes, such commons were also grazed. A few of them still survive, for example common arable fields around the village of Laxton in Nottinghamshire, and a common meadow at North Meadow, Cricklade. Laxton is a small Village in the Civil parish of Laxton and Moorhouse in the English county of Nottinghamshire. North Meadow Cricklade ( is a hay meadow near the village of Cricklade, in Wiltshire, England.

Commons law

The legal position concerning common land is confused. Most commons are based on ancient rights which pre-date the established law and even the Monarchy. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or The exact rights which apply to individual commons may be documented but more often are based on long-held traditions. The UK government tried to regularise the definitions of common land with the Commons Registration Act 1965, which established a register of common land. However numerous inconsistencies and irregularities remain.

Prior to the Erection of Cottages Act 1588, an Englishman could build his house on common land, if he could raise the roof over his head and have a fire in the hearth between sunrise and sunset, and claim the dwelling as his home.

Registered commons often abut each other, so what may appear to be a single large common may in fact consist of several commons with no visible boundary between them—these may for example be in different parishes. A parish is a Local church; it is an administrative unit typically found in episcopal or presbyterian churches The commoners will have reciprocal rights over each other's commons.

The maintenance of fences around a common is the responsibility of the occupiers of the adjacent enclosed land, not (as it would be with enclosed land) the responsibility of the owners of the grazed livestock. This can lead to difficulties where not all adjacent occupiers maintain their fences properly.

The act of transferring resources from the commons to purely private ownership is known as enclosure, or (especially in formal use, and in place names) Inclosure. Enclosure or inclosure (the latter is used in Legal documents and Place names is the term used in England and Wales The Inclosure Acts were a series of private Acts of Parliament, mainly from about 1750 to 1850, which enclosed large areas of common, especially the arable and haymeadow land and the better pasture land. The Inclosure Acts were a series of United Kingdom Acts of Parliament which enclosed open fields and Common land in the country An Act of Parliament is a Law enacted as Primary legislation by a national or sub-national Parliament.

It is often thought that a common is somehow owned by everyone, or at least by the community in some sense. While that may have been true more than a thousand years ago, when waste would be used for grazing by the local community and over which there would not be, nor would there need to be, any particular limit or control of usage; since at least late Anglo-Saxon times, the right to exercise a right of common has been restricted to a commoner.

The use of commons rights were carefully controlled, and so in practice commons did not usually suffer from the tragedy of the commons. The Tragedy of the Commons is the title of an influential article written by Garrett Hardin, first published in the journal Science in 1968. For example, in response to overgrazing a common would be stinted, that is, a limit would be put on the number of animals each commoner was allowed to graze. These regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure—rather than let the commons be degraded, access was usually restricted even further.

Commons are often crossed by public roads, and this leads to another problem on modern pasture commons where grazing survives (or is to be reintroduced). Historically, the roads would have been cart-tracks, and there would have been no conflict between their horse-drawn (or ox-drawn) traffic and the pastured animals, and no great difficulty if pastured animals wandered off the common along the roads. However, these roads now have fast motorised traffic which does not mix safely with animals. To continue (or restore) grazing, such roads may need fencing or at least blocking at the edge of the common with cattle grids—however permission for fencing on a common is a bureacratic process which can be interrupted or prevented by unsympathetic local objectors (see neglect of commons below). A cattle grid or cattle guard – also known as a vehicle pass or in New Zealand, a cattle stop – is a type of obstacle used to Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government

Royal Forests are legally separate from ordinary commons, but most have a similar commoning system. A royal forest is an area of land where certain rights are reserved for a Monarch or the Aristocracy, usually set aside for Hunting (see Medieval hunting

Neglect of commons

After the Second World War most lowland commons became neglected because commoners, who could find better-paid work in other sectors of the economy, largely stopped exercising their rights. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including When open habitats are no longer grazed they start to develop scrub and then dense woodland, losing the grassy or heathland vegetation which may have occupied the land continuously for many centuries.

In 2007 Ashdown Forest (better known as the location for the fictional Hundred Acre Wood inhabited by Winnie-the-Pooh and his friends) was the centre of a dispute between some local residents and the forest's governing body, the Board of Conservators (who are working on behalf of the owners, East Sussex County Council). Ashdown Forest is in the county of East Sussex, in South East England is an open area of of heathland together with pine birch and oak woodland in the High The Hundred Acre Wood (also spelled as 100 Ackere Wood, Hundred-Acre Wood, and 100 Acre Wood; also known as simply "The Wood" is the fictional Winnie-the-Pooh, commonly shortened to Pooh Bear and once referred to as Edward Bear, is a fictional Bear created by A East Sussex is a county in South East England. It is bordered by the counties of Kent, Surrey and West Sussex, and to the The Board wish to return the area to as it was before the Second World War, a blend of heath and woodland, lost because of

"the advance of woodland into traditional heath areas after the Second World War, when returning soldiers gave up trying to scratch a living out of the forest. Whereas once hundreds of commoners used the wood and heath—their livestock obliging by chewing down young tree shoots—today there is only one commercial grazer. "[2]

The residents complain that the results look like a First World War battle field. This is not a problem restricted to this common, but according to Jonathan Brown writing in the Independent on 21 April 2007 "similar debates are raging between locals and the authorities at other heathland areas in the New Forest and Surrey". Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) [2]

Common Land in Scotland

There are seven main types of common land in Scotland,[1] some of which have similarities to common land in England and Wales. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

Commonties

The overwhelming majority of areas of common land in lowland Scotland and the Highland fringes were commonties. The Scottish Highlands ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, Scots: Hielans) include the rugged and Mountainous A commonty is an area of land where the rights of property or use are shared by two or more neighbouring (though not necessarily adjacent) landowners. In the Common law, real property (or realty) refers to one of the two main classes of Property, the other class being Personal property ( They are not therefore truly 'common' land in the sense that anyone can use them, and this distinction meant that it was often very easy for commonties to be divided between landowners after a series of Acts permitting this were passed by the Parliament of Scotland in the 17th century, most notably the 1695 Act for the Division of Commonties. This article is about the pre-1707 parliament The article on the devolved legislative body established in 1999 is at Scottish Parliament. As a result the number of commonties declined very rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Common Mosses

Common mosses were areas of bog where the right to dig peat for fuel were shared by neighbouring landowners. A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. They are therfore similar to commonties and most commonties included a common moss. However the difficulties of dividing such wet areas meant that they were left out of many commonty divisions and many common mosses may still survive, un-noticed because of the decline of peat-cutting.

Run rig

Main article: Run rig

Run rig is a system of agriculture involving the cultivation of adjacent, narrow strips of raised land (rigs). Run rig, or runrig, was a system of land occupation practised in northern and western Great Britain, especially Scotland. Traditionally adjacent rigs would be used by different farmers and the rigs were periodically re-allocated between them. The system was common throughout Scotland prior to the 18th century, but survived longer in the Western Highlands where runrig was often associated with an adjacent area of common hill grazing which was also shared by the same farmers as the runrig. The Scottish Highlands ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, Scots: Hielans) include the rugged and Mountainous

Scattalds

Scattalds are unique to Shetland and are based on udal law, rather than the feudal law that predominated in the rest of Scotland. Shetland (formerly spelled Zetland, from etland; Old Norse non Hjaltland; Sealtainn is an Archipelago off the northeast coast of Udal law is a near-defunct Norse derived Legal system, which is found in Shetland and Orkney, Scotland and in Manx law Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed However, Scattalds are very similar to commonties and many were divided under the same 1695 Act that allowed for the division of commonties.

Crown Commons

Crown Commons were areas of land held directly by the crown and therefore the common rights that could be used were rights of use rather than rights of property. Unlike commonties, the rights to use crown commons (for example for grazing livestock) were available to anyone, not just the neighbouring landowners. There are no crown commons left in Scotland; those that survived into the 20th century were taken over by the Crown Estate. In the United Kingdom, the Crown Estate is a Property portfolio associated with the monarchy.

Greens and Loans

Greens were small areas of common land near a settlement where livestock could be kept overnight, markets held and other communal activities carried out. Sometimes they were adjacent to drovers' roads near river crossing points or overnight accommodation. A drovers' road, drove or droveway is an ancient route for driving Livestock on foot from one place to another such as to market or between Most were genuinely common land with only the Crown holding any title to them. A loan was a common route through private property allowing access to an area of common land or other public place. As the traditional uses of greens and loans declined, they were often absorbed by the neighbouring landowners.

Burgh Commons

Burgh Commons were areas of common land where property rights or privileges of use were held by the Burgh for their inhabitants. A Burgh (ˈbʌʀə is an autonomous corporate entity in Scotland, usually a Town. They could include any of the other six types of common land and were sometimes shared with landowners outside the burgh. By the early 19th century, most burgh commons had been appropriated by the wealthy landowners who dominated burgh councils, and very few survive to this day.

Wider usage of the term

The word "Commons" has now come to be used in the sense of any sets of resources that a community recognizes as being accessible to any member of that community. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. The nature of commons is different in different communities, but they often include cultural resources and natural resources.

While commons are generally seen as a system opposed to private property, they have been combined in the idea of common property, which are resources owned equally by every member of the community, even though the community recognises that only a limited number of members may use the resource at any given time. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual

Commons are a subset of public goods; specifically meaning a public good which is not infinite. In Economics, a public good is a good that is non-rivaled and non-excludable. Commons can therefore be land, rivers and, arguably, money. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. The Commons is most often a finite but replenishable resource, which requires responsible use in order to remain available. A subset of this is a commons which requires not only responsible use but also active contribution from its users, such as a school or church funded by local donations. A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils"

In order to ensure responsibility of the users, there must be a system of management. Such models include the Hobbesian Leviathan model, where there is a central authority that monitors the behaviour of the users and can sanction abusers. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation Leviathan or The Matter Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, commonly called Leviathan, is a book written by Thomas There are also many other models, some of which can require no maintenance—for instance, if it is known that the collective consists mostly of contingent cooperators, then once responsible behaviour has been established, it will most likely continue without management. A contingent cooperator is a person or agent who is willing to act in the collective interest rather than his short-term selfish interest if he observes a majority of the other agents Another model is reputation management. Reputation management is the process of tracking an entity's actions and other entities' opinions about those actions reporting on those actions and opinions and reacting to

Historical Movements in Defence of the Commons

Contemporary Movements in Defence of the Commons

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b Callander, p.  ???
  2. ^ a b Jonathan Brown Oh bother! Nimbies do battle with council over Pooh's forest, The Independent, (section:This Britain), 21 April, 2007

References

Further reading

External links

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