Comfort women
Japanese name
Kanji 慰安婦 Rōmaji ianfu
Alternate Japanese name
Kanji 従軍慰安婦 Rōmaji jūgun-ianfu
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 慰安婦 Simplified Chinese 慰安妇 Hanyu Pinyin Wèiān Fù Wade-Giles Wei-An Fu
Korean name
Hangul 위안부 Hanja 慰安婦 Revised Romanization wianbu McCune-Reischauer wianbu
Alternate Korean name
Hangul 일본군 성노예 Hanja 日本軍 性奴隸 Revised Romanization ilbongun seongnoe McCune-Reischauer ilbongun songnoe

Comfort women (慰安婦, ianfu^?) or military comfort women (従軍慰安婦, jūgun-ianfu^?) is a euphemism for women forced into prostitution and sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War II. are the Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese logographic writing system along with Hiragana (ひらがな 平仮名 Katakana The romanization of Japanese or ( is the use of the Latin alphabet to write the Japanese language. are the Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese logographic writing system along with Hiragana (ひらがな 平仮名 Katakana The romanization of Japanese or ( is the use of the Latin alphabet to write the Japanese language. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated The Revised Romanization of Korean is the official Korean language Romanization system in South Korea. McCune-Reischauer romanization is one of the two most widely used Korean language Romanization systems along with the Revised Romanization of Korean, which Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated The Revised Romanization of Korean is the official Korean language Romanization system in South Korea. McCune-Reischauer romanization is one of the two most widely used Korean language Romanization systems along with the Revised Romanization of Korean, which A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ^[1][2] Around 10,000 - 200,000 are estimated to have been procured, but there is still some disagreement about exact numbers. Historians and researchers have stated that the majority were from Korea and China, but women from the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, the Dutch East Indies, Indonesia, and other Japanese-occupied territories were also used in "comfort stations". Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Stations were located in Japan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, then Malaya, Thailand, then Burma, then New Guinea, Hong Kong, Macau, and what was then French Indochina. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula that were colonized by the British from the 18th and the 19th until the 20th century The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit ^[3]

Young women from countries under Japanese imperial domination were reportedly abducted from their homes against their will. In some cases, women were also recruited with offers to work in military canteens and factories and subsequently forced to sexual service. ^[4][5][6] It has been documented that the Japanese military itself recruited women by force. ^[7]

The size and nature of sexual slavery by the Japanese military during World War II is still being actively debated, especially in Japan.

Many military brothels were run by private agents and supervised by the Japanese Army. Some Japanese historians, using the testimony of ex-comfort women, have argued that the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were either directly or indirectly involved in coercing, deceiving, luring, and sometimes kidnapping young women throughout Japan's Asian colonies and occupied territories. The Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA) ( Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国陸軍 Romaji: Dai-Nippon Teikoku For Combined Fleet, please see that article For Carrier Striking Task Force, please see that article The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ( Kyūjitai: 大東亞共榮圈 Shinjitai: ja 大東亜共栄圏 Dai-tō-a Kyōeiken) was a concept ^[8]

Contents 1 Establishment of the Comfort Women System 1.1 Japanese military prostitution 1.2 Recruitment 1.3 Number of comfort women 1.4 Country of origin 1.5 Treatment of comfort women 1.6 Evidence 2 History of the controversy 2.1 Disputed testimony of an ex-soldier 2.2 Initial government response and litigation 2.3 Kono statement 2.4 Asia Women's Fund 2.5 United Nations Human Rights Commission 2.5.1 Guilt and liability 2.5.2 Official position of the Japanese government 2.6 Abe controversy 2.7 The use of the term 2.8 U.S. Congressional resolution 2.9 Dutch Parliament resolution 2.10 Canadian Lower House resolution 2.11 European Parliament resolution 3 Revisionists and other deniers 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Print media 5.3 Web 5.4 Academic research 5.5 Japanese official statements 5.6 United States historical documents

Establishment of the Comfort Women System

Japanese military prostitution

Given the well-organized and open nature of prostitution in Japan, it was seen as logical that there should be organized prostitution to serve the Japanese Armed Forces. ^[9] Japanese authorities hoped that by providing easily accessible prostitutes, the morale and ultimately the military effectiveness of Japanese soldiers would be improved. Also, by institutionalizing brothels and placing them under official scrutiny, the government hoped to control the spread of STDs. A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans

In spite of the analysis made by the author George Hicks mentioned in the preceding paragraph, military correspondence of Japanese Imperial Army shows that the aim of facilitating comfort stations was prevention of rape crimes committed by Japanese army personnel and thus preventing rise of hostility among people in occupied areas. ^[10]

Recruitment

In the early stages of the war, Japanese authorities recruited prostitutes through conventional means. Middlemen advertised in newspapers circulating in Japan and the Japanese colonies of Korea, Taiwan, Manchukuo, and mainland China. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Manchukuo (ja [[wikt満州国 満州国]] Manshūkoku lit "State of Manchuria " was a Puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Mainland China, Continental China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term synonymous with the area that is under the jurisdiction However, these sources soon dried up, especially from Japan. ^[11]

On April 17, 2007, Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Hirofumi Hayashi announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that Imperial military forces, such as the Tokeitai (naval secret police), forced women whose fathers attacked the Kempei Tai (Japanese military police), to work in front line brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. (1946-)is a professor of modern Japanese history at Chuo University in Tokyo is a historian an authority on modern Japanese history and is currently a professor of politics at the Kanto Gakuin University. The was the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Military police, they were equivalent to the Imperial Japanese Army 's Kempeitai. The Kempeitai (Japanese 憲兵隊 "Corps of Law Soldiers" was the Military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945 These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels. ^[12]

On 12 May 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura announced the discovery of 30 Dutch government documents submitted to the Tokyo tribunal as evidence of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in Magelang. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Magelang is one of the largest cities of the 1130 km² Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia and also the largest town in the Kedu Plain ^[13]

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs resisted further issuance of travel visas for Japanese prostitutes, feeling it tarnished the image of the Japanese Empire. ^[14] The military turned to acquiring comfort women outside mainland Japan, especially from Korea and occupied China. Many women were tricked or defrauded into joining the military brothels. ^[15] The US Army Force Office report of interview with 20 comfort women in Burma found that the girls were induced by the offer of plenty of money, an opportunity to pay off the family debts, and on the basis of these false representations many girls enlisted for overseas duty and were rewarded with advance of a few hundred yen. ^[16]

In urban areas, conventional advertising through middlemen was used alongside kidnapping. However, along the front lines, especially in the countryside where middlemen were rare, the military often directly demanded that local leaders procure women for the brothels. This situation became worse as the war progressed. Under the strain of the war effort, the military became unable to provide enough supplies to Japanese units; in response, the units made up the difference by demanding or looting supplies from the locals. Moreover, when the locals, especially Chinese, were considered hostile, Japanese soldiers carried out the "Three Alls Policy", which included indiscriminately kidnapping and raping local civilians. The Three Alls Policy (三光作戦 Sankō Sakusen;) was a Japanese Scorched earth policy adopted in China during World War II, the three alls ^[17][18][19]

South Korean government designated Bae Jeong-ja as pro-Japan collaborator (chinilpa) in September 2007 for recruiting comfort women. Chinilpa (친일파 親日派 literally "people friendly to Japan" is a Korean word that denotes Koreans who collaborated with the Japanese government ^[20][21]

Number of comfort women

Lack of official documentation has made estimates of the total number of comfort women difficult, as vast amounts of material pertaining to matters related to war crimes and the war responsibility of the nation's highest leaders were deleted on the orders of the Japanese government. ^[22] Historians have arrived at various estimates by looking at surviving documentation which indicate the ratio of the number of soldiers in a particular area to the number of women, as well as looking at replacement rates of the women. ^[23] Historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi, who conducted the first academic study on the topic which brought the issue out into the open, estimated the number to be between 50,000 and 200,000. (1946-)is a professor of modern Japanese history at Chuo University in Tokyo ^[10]

Based on these estimates, most international media sources quote about 200,000 young women were recruited or kidnapped by soldiers to serve in Japanese military brothels. The BBC quotes "200,000 to 300,000" and the International Commission of Jurists quotes "estimates of historians of 100,000 to 200,000 women. "^[24]

Country of origin

Internationally, it is generally thought that most of the women were from Korea and China. ^[25][26] Others came from the Philippines, Taiwan, Dutch East Indies, and other Japanese-occupied countries and regions. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Imperial Japan occupied Indonesia during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of War in 1945 ^[27] Some Dutch women, captured in Dutch colonies in Asia, were also forced into sexual slavery. The Dutch people ( Dutch:) are the dominant Ethnic group of the Netherlands. Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery ^[28][29]

According to Kono Statement in 1993, the origin of those comfort women who were transferred to the war areas, excluding those from Japan, those from the Korean Peninsula accounted for a large part. ^[30]

According to Kanto Gakuin University professor Hirofumi Hayashi, the majority of the women were from Japan, Korea, and China. is a private University located in Yokohama, Japan. The school's official English name is Mabie Memorial School. is a historian an authority on modern Japanese history and is currently a professor of politics at the Kanto Gakuin University. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[27]

To date, only one Japanese woman has published her testimony. This was done in 1971, when a former "comfort woman" forced to work for showa soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs under the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota. ^[31]

Treatment of comfort women

According to Unit 731 soldier Yasuji Kaneko^[32] "The women cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during was a soldier of the Imperial Japanese Army during the events of the Pacific War and claimed to be part of the notorious human experimentation unit Unit 731 We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance. "^[33] Beatings and physical torture were said to be not uncommon. ^[34]

Ten Dutch women were taken by force from prison camps in Java by officers of the Japanese Imperial Army to become forced sex slaves in February 1944. They were systematically beaten and raped day and night in a so called "Comfort Station". ^[34][8] As a victim of the incident, Jan Ruff-O'Hearn testified to a U. S. House of Representatives committee, "Many stories have been told about the horrors, brutalities, suffering and starvation of Dutch women in Japanese prison camps. But one story was never told, the most shameful story of the worst human rights abuse committed by the Japanese during World War II: The story of the “Comfort Women”, the jugun ianfu, and how these women were forcibly seized against their will, to provide sexual services for the Japanese Imperial Army. In the so-called “Comfort Station” I was systematically beaten and raped day and night. Even the Japanese doctor raped me each time he visited the brothel to examine us for venereal disease. "^[34][8] Although they were returned to the prison camps within three months upon protest of the Dutch prisoners against the Imperial Army, the Japanese officers were not punished by Japanese authorities until the end of the war. ^[35] After the end of the war 11 Japanese officers were declared guilty with one sentenced to death by the Batavia War Criminal Court. ^[35] It decided that the case was not crime organized by the Army and that the ones who raped violated the Army’s order to hire only voluntary women. ^[35]

Some researchers have found documents giving instructions not to treat comfort women violently. ^[36] However, some victims from East Timor testified they were forced when they were not old enough to have started menstruating and repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. ^[37]

Hank Nelson, emeritus professor at the Australian National University’s Asia Pacific Research Division has written about the brothels run by the Japanese military in Rabaul, Papua New Guinea during WWII. Hank Nelson is one of Australia 's foremost historians of the Pacific, particularly Papua New Guinea. The Australian National University, commonly abbreviated to ANU, is a public Research university situated in Canberra, Australia. Rabaul is a township in East New Britain province Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea (or ˈpæpjuːə in Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini) officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania He quotes from the diary of Gordon Thomas, a POW in Rabaul. Thomas writes that the women working at the brothels “most likely served 25 to 35 men a day” and that they were “victims of the yellow slave trade. ”^[38]

Nelson also quotes from Kentaro Igusa, a Japanese naval surgeon who was stationed in Rabaul. Igusa wrote in his memoirs that the women continued to work through infection and severe discomfort, though they “cried and begged for help. ”^[38]

Evidence

After its defeat the Japanese military destroyed many documents for fear of war crimes prosecution. ^[39] There is hard evidence proving official orders from the Japanese Ministry of War to destroy evidence. ^[40]

Historians have searched for evidence of the Army and Navy's coercion, and some written proof has been discovered, such as documents found in 2007 by Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Hirofumi Hayashi. (1946-)is a professor of modern Japanese history at Chuo University in Tokyo ^[41] The surviving sex slaves wanted an apology from the Japanese government. Abe Hiroshi, the prime minister at the time, stated that there is no evidence that the Japanese government instituted a brutal sex slave industry. His statement was proved incorrect in 2006.

History of the controversy

Disputed testimony of an ex-soldier

In 1983, Seiji Yoshida published Watashino sensō hanzai - Chōsenjin Kyōsei Renkō (My War Crimes: The Impressment of Koreans), in which the author confesses to forcibly procuring women from Jeju Island in Korea under the direct order from the Japanese military. pen name, born 1913 is a Japanese writer and former soldier in the Imperial Japanese Army. Jeju-do ( transliterated Korean for Jeju Province, short form of Jeju Special Self-Governing Province) is the only special self-governing province In 1991, Asahi Shimbun, one of the major newspapers of Japan, ran a series on comfort women for a year. The is the second most circulated out of the five national Newspapers in Japan; the other four are the Yomiuri Shimbun, the Mainichi Shimbun This is often regarded as the trigger of the on-going controversy over comfort women in Japan. In this series the Asahi Shimbun repeatedly published excerpts of his book. Consequently, it was regarded as evidence of "forced comfort women" and cited in the U. N. report by Dr. Radhika Coomaraswamy. Radhika Coomaraswamy was appointed by then United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan as Under-Secretary-General Special Representative for Children and

But some people doubted Yoshida's "confession" because he was alone in admitting to such crimes. When Prof. Ikuhiko Hata revisited the villages in South Korea where Yoshida claimed he had abducted many women, nobody confirmed Yoshida's confession and the situation was contradictory to his confession. Ikuhiko Hata (秦郁彦 Hata Ikuhiko December 12, 1932 -) is a Japanese Historian. When Hata questioned Yoshida on this matter, the latter admitted that he had taken artistic licence in respect to the places mentioned.

Initial government response and litigation

Initially the Japanese government denied any official connection to the wartime brothels; in June 1990, the Japanese government declared that all brothels were run by private contractors.

In 1990, the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery filed suit, demanding compensation. Several surviving comfort women also independently filed suit in the Tokyo District Court. officially, is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan and located on the eastern side of the main island Honshū. District courts are a category of Courts which exists in several nations The court rejected these claims on grounds such as statute of limitations, the immunity of the State at the time of the act concerned, and non-subjectivity of the individual of international law. ^[42]

Kono statement

However, in 1991, the historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi discovered incriminating documents in the archives of Japan's Defense Agency. (1946-)is a professor of modern Japanese history at Chuo University in Tokyo The is one of Cabinet -level ministries of the Japanese government. According to Yoshimi they indicated that the military was directly involved in running the brothels, for example by selecting the recruiting agents. ^[43] The Asahi Shimbun, a major Japanese national daily, published these findings as a front-page article "Japanese Army abducted comfort women" on 11 January 1992. The is the second most circulated out of the five national Newspapers in Japan; the other four are the Yomiuri Shimbun, the Mainichi Shimbun Events 1055 - Theodora is crowned Empress of the Byzantine Empire. Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) This caused a sensation and forced the government, represented by Chief Cabinet Secretary, Koichi Kato, to acknowledge some of the facts the same day. Kōichi Katō is the name of two House of Representatives of Japan 's members On January 17, 1992, Prime minister Kiichi Miyazawa presented formal apologies for the suffering of the victims during a trip to South Korea. Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) was a Japanese Politician and the 78th Prime Minister from November 5, 1991 to August 9, 1993.

After some government studies into the matter, Yohei Kono, the Chief Cabinet Secretary of the Japanese government, issued a statement on 4 August 1993. is a Japanese politician History Kono is the eldest son of Ichiro Kono, a former minister dealing with the Tokyo Olympic Games. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) By this statement the Japanese government recognized that "Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military of the day", that "The Japanese military was directly or indirectly involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of the women", "The recruitment of the comfort women was conducted mainly by private recruiters who acted in response to the request of the military. The Government study has revealed that in many cases they were recruited against their own will through coaxing and coercion". The government of Japan "sincerely apologize[d] and [expressed its] remorse to all those, irrespective of place of origin, who suffered immeasurable pain and incurable psychological wounds". In the statement, the government of Japan expressed its "firm determination never to repeat the same mistake and that they would engrave such issue through the study and teaching of history". ^[30]

Although this statement gave the pretense of being an apology, it was very carefully worded, thus admitting an unspecified role in the military brothels, yet rejecting legal responsibility for them. Japan continues to contend the brothels were not a "system" and not a war crime nor crime against humanity. ^[44]

Asia Women's Fund

In 1995, Japan set up an "Asia Women's Fund" for atonement in the form of material compensation and to provide each surviving comfort woman with a signed apology from the then prime minister　Tomiichi Murayama, stating "As Prime Minister of Japan, I thus extend anew my most sincere apologies and remorse to all the women who underwent immeasurable and painful experiences and suffered incurable physical and psychological wounds as comfort women. is a retired Japanese politician who served as the 81st Prime Minister of Japan from June 30, 1994 to January 11, 1996. "^[45] The fund is funded by private donations and not government money, and has been criticized as a way to avoid admitting government abuse. ^[46][33] But because of the unofficial nature of the fund, many comfort women have rejected these payments and continue to seek an official apology and compensation. ^[47]

United Nations Human Rights Commission

On June 22, 1998, Gay J. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) McDougall, Special Rapporteur to the United Nations Human Rights Commission, released Contemporary Forms of Slavery^[48], a report based on prior UN investigation by Linda Chavez documenting systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices in wartime in general but which was mainly aimed at bringing wider attention to the deep harm to human rights caused by Japan's comfort women program during World War II. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights ( UNCHR) was a functional commission within the overall framework of the United Nations. Linda Chavez (born June 17, 1947 in Albuquerque New Mexico) is a prominent Hispanic -American conservative Author, The report detailed the official Japanese government stance as well as the UN's own legal position. MacDougall was awarded a MacArthur Fellows Program "genius" grant the year after her analysis. The MacArthur Fellows Program or MacArthur Fellowship (sometimes Nicknamed the "genius grant") is an award given by the John D

Guilt and liability

The 1998 UN report listed their findings regarding Japan's guilt and liability:

• The system of comfort women used by the Japanese government during WWII falls under the international definition of slavery at the time, and slavery (sexual or otherwise) was illegal at the time. The 1926 Slavery Convention embodies one such definition. The 1926 Slavery Convention or the Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery was an International treaty created under the auspices of the League International prohibition of slavery was included in the Tokyo Charter which was used to make the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. ^[48]
• Rape (including forced or coerced prostitution) was a war crime at the time; regardless of whether prostitution was widespread during World War II. ^[48]
• Enslavement and other inhumane acts committed by the Japanese government can be considered “crimes against humanity. ” In crimes against humanity, the nationality of the victim is irrelevant thus, (it doesn’t matter if the Japanese government was committing crimes against its enemies’ citizens or its own) it is liable for these offenses. ^[48]
• The Japanese government is liable for crimes against humanity because of the considerable scale on which these crimes were committed. ^[48]
• Arguments that the enslaving and raping of comfort women was perfectly legal at the time is similar to an argument that was used and refuted at the Nuremberg Trials. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political military and economic leadership of Nazi Germany after ^[48]

Official position of the Japanese government

The 1998 UN report stated their understanding of Japan's legal position regarding compensation:

"Until the early 1990s, the Japanese government denied the extent of its involvement in the creation of comfort stations and the abuses committed against women (comfort women). The Japanese government has made various apologies since the early 1990s. One very notable apology was made by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama in July 1995 in which he specifically mentions the Japanese military’s involvement in crimes against comfort women. is a retired Japanese politician who served as the 81st Prime Minister of Japan from June 30, 1994 to January 11, 1996. Though it has seemingly apologized repeatedly for these offenses, the Japanese government denies legal liability for the creation and maintenance of the system of “comfort stations” and comfort women used during World War II. The Japanese government has set up an Asia Women’s Fund which conveys Japan’s apologies for crimes committed against women during World War II through direct donations from the Japanese public. Comfort women is a Euphemism for women forced into Prostitution and Sexual slavery for Japanese military brothels during World War Despite this, according to the Japanese government, individual comfort women don’t deserve compensation. "^[48]

Abe controversy

On 2 March 2007, the issue was raised again by Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, when he denied that the Japanese military had forced women into sexual slavery during World War II in an orchestrated way. Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery He stated, "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion. " Before he spoke, a group of Liberal Democratic Party lawmakers also sought to revise Yohei Kono's 1993 apology to former comfort women. The, frequently abbreviated to LDP or, is a Centre right, conservative, Political party and the largest party in Japan. ^[49][46] Abe's statement provoked a negative reaction from Asian and Western countries. The New York Times editorial said, "These were not commercial brothels. Force, explicit and implicit, was used in recruiting these women. "^[50] On 26 March 2007 Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed his regrets for the violations of human rights with regard to comfort women. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. According to Kyodo news, Abe's step back and announcement that he should stand after all to Yohei Kono's 1993 statement was made after firm warning by U. is a Japanese politician History Kono is the eldest son of Ichiro Kono, a former minister dealing with the Tokyo Olympic Games. S. ambassador Thomas Schieffer. ^[51]

Following Abe's declarations, former education minister Nariaki Nakayama declared he was proud that the Liberal Democratic Party had succeeded in getting references to "wartime sex slaves" struck from most authorized history texts for junior high schools. The, frequently abbreviated to LDP or, is a Centre right, conservative, Political party and the largest party in Japan. "Our campaign worked, and people outside government also started raising their voices. " ^[52], He also declared that he agreed with an e-mail sent to him saying that the "victimized women in Asia should be proud of being comfort women". ^[53]

The use of the term

Taiwan's English-language newspaper Taipei Times says that the first exposure of the use of Korean comfort women can be found in Japanese writer Tamura Taijiro's 1947 novel A Prostitute's Story. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. The Taipei Times is one of the three major English -language Newspapers in the Republic of China ( Taiwan) the other two being the List by Family Name A - B - C - D - E - F - G - H - I - J - K ^[54]

Japanese newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun stated that commfort women were not treated as "paramilitary personnel", unlike military nurses. The is a Japanese Newspaper published in Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other major Japanese cities ^[55][56] The article says, during the war, Comfort women were not called military comfort women (従軍慰安婦, jūgun-ianfu^?). ^[55][56] and the use of the term spread in the post-war time. ^[55][56] Also stated that the term military comfort women is said to have been used by Japanese writer Kakō Senda (1924-2000) in his book titled Jūgun Ianfu (military comfort women ) published in 1973. Kakou Senda (千田 夏光 Senda kakou) is a Japanese writer born on August 28 1924 in Dalian, China. ^[55][56]

Senda’s book became a best seller. ^[57] Thereafter, the usage of jugun ianfu prevailed,^[56] and the term jugun ianfu (comfort women serving in the war), would later become contentious, came to have a wide circulation. ^[57]

U. S. Congressional resolution

In 2007, Mike Honda of the United States House of Representatives proposed House Resolution 121 which stated that Japan should formally acknowledge, apologize, and accept historical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner, refute any claims that the issue of comfort women never occurred, and educate current and future generations "about this horrible crime while following the recommendations of the international community with respect to the 'comfort women'. Michael Makoto Honda ( Japanese: 本田 実 born June 27 1941) is an American Democratic politician The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121 ( is a resolution about Comfort women which Mike Honda introduced to the American House of "^[58] Honda has stated that "the purpose of this resolution is not to bash or humiliate Japan. "^[59] However, the Japanese embassy in the U. S. stated that the Resolution was erroneous in terms of the facts and that it would be harmful to the friendship between the US and Japan. ^[60]

On July 30, 2007, the resolution passed through the House of Representatives after half an hour of debate in which there was no opposition voiced. Events 1419 - First Defenestration of Prague. 1502 - Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay Islands off Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ^[61] Honda was quoted on the floor as saying, "We must teach future generations that we cannot allow this to continue to happen. I have always believed that reconciliation is the first step in the healing process. "^[61]

Dutch Parliament resolution

The lower house of the Dutch parliament passed a motion unanimously on November 20, 2007, urging Japan to financially compensate the women forced into sex slavery during World War II. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

"This should send a strong and clear signal to the Japanese government and the Japanese people, that so many years after World War II, people in the Netherlands still want the Japanese to recognize the war crimes of the past and to recognize the victims," said van Baalen, who tabled the motion. "It is a matter still taken seriously in the Netherlands," he said. ^{[62] [63]}

Canadian Lower House resolution

Canada's lower house unanimously approved a draft motion on November 28, 2007 that urges the Japanese government to make a "formal and sincere apology" to women who were forced by the Japanese military to provide sex for soldiers during World War II.

The text of the motion said the Canadian government should call on the Japanese government "to take full responsibility for the involvement of the Japanese Imperial Forces in the system of forced prostitution, including through a formal and sincere apology expressed in the Diet to all of those who were victims; and to continue to address with those affected in a spirit of reconciliation. "

It also said, "Some Japanese public officials have recently expressed a regrettable desire to dilute or rescind the 1993 statement by Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono on the 'comfort women,' which expressed the (Japanese) Government's sincere apologies and remorse for their ordeal. "

The motion, though nonbinding, also said the Canadian government should call on Japan to abandon any statement which devalues the expression of regret from the Kono statement and to clearly and publicly refute any claims that the sexual enslavement and trafficking of the "comfort women" for the Imperial Japanese Army never occurred. ^[64][65]

European Parliament resolution

Following a campaign by Amnesty International to press the EU on making a statement about the issue, on 13 December 2007 the European Parliament in Strasbourg passed a resolution calling for the Japanese government to formally acknowledge its historical responsibility over the Comfort Women issue, as well as apologize and compensate victims. The European Parliament ( Europarl or EP) is the only directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région

The motion was submitted by Jean Lambert, a Green member of the European Parliament, and was voted through by 54 Member of the European Parliament's. The resolution, while acknowledging past statements by the Japanese government, noted that "some Japanese officials have recently expressed a regrettable desire to dilute or rescind those statements" and called for the Japanese government to "formally acknowledge, apologize and accept historical and legal responsibility, in a clear and unequivocal manner". The resolution also called for the Japanese government to remove legal obstacles to compensation for the victims, and to take steps to educate people about these events. ^{[66] [67][68][69]}

Revisionists and other deniers

The main opposition to the mainstream ideas about comfort women is perhaps the view held by Ikuhiko Hata and other revisionist historians. Ikuhiko Hata (秦郁彦 Hata Ikuhiko December 12, 1932 -) is a Japanese Historian. For the denial and distortion of well-established historical facts see Historical revisionism (negationism. They question the credibility of certain evidence used to prove the existence and scope of various warcrimes committed by Japan including the abuse of comfort women. These Japanese historians argue that there is no evidence to prove the Japanese military's direct involvement in coercion of the women. In their view, there was violent treatment of comfort women by private agents, which would make the Japanese Military only responsible for insufficient supervision. A comic book, On Taiwan by Japanese author Yoshinori Kobayashi, depicts kimono-clad women lining up to sign up for duty before a Japanese soldier. is a Manga authored by Yoshinori Kobayashi published by Shogakukan in November 2000 Yoshinori Kobayashi ( Penname: 小林 よしのり Real name 小林 善範 Kobayashi Yoshinori, born in Fukuoka, Japan, August 31 Kobayashi's book contains an interview with Taiwanese industrialist Shi Wen-long who stated that no women were forced to serve, and that they worked in more hygienic conditions compared to regular prostitutes because the use of condoms was mandatory. Wen-long Shi ( Chinese: 許文龍 Shi Wen-long) is a Taiwanese businessman and the founder of Chi Mei Corporation, the largest maker of ^[70].

Hata estimates the number of comfort women to be more likely between 10,000 and 20,000 (in contrast to 60,000 to 300,000 estimated by other historians). ^[10] Hata writes that none of the comfort women were forcibly recruited. ^[71]

The proportion of countries of origin of the women is also in dispute.

One argument revisionists use to oppose the mainstream conclusions about the abuse of comfort women is to question the credibility of testimony given by former comfort women. Some Japanese politicians have argued that the former comfort women's testimony is inconsistent and unreliable; making it invalid. ^[72]

Some groups in Japan have protested the mainstream ideas about comfort women being broadcast in mass media. This resulted in the NHK controversy in early 2001. or Japan Broadcasting Corporation, is Japan 's Public broadcaster. What was supposed to be coverage of the Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery was extremely edited and an interview with Hata was inserted at the last minute to appease the right-wing groups that complained to NHK. Ikuhiko Hata (秦郁彦 Hata Ikuhiko December 12, 1932 -) is a Japanese Historian. ^[73]

See also

• List of war crimes
• Japanese war crimes
• List of War Apology Statements Issued by Japan
• Anti-Japanese sentiment
  • Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
  • Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
• Trafficking in human beings
• Joy Division (World War II)
• Recreation and Amusement Association
• Historical revisionism (negationism)
• United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121
• Rosa Henson, a Filipina who told her story as a comfort woman
• Sexual enslavement by Nazi Germany in WWII

References

Footnotes

Print media

Some recent work on the comfort women issue include:

• Barbara Drinck, Chung-noh Gross Forced Prostitution in Times of War and Peace, Kleine Verlag, 2007. ISBN-13: 978-3-89370-436-1.
• Tanaka, Yuki Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation, London, Routledge: 2002. ISBN 0-415-19401-6.
• Yoshimi, Yoshiaki Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Columbia University Press, 2001. (mentioned RAA too) ISBN 0-231-12032-X.
• Molasky, Michael S. American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa, Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-19194-7, ISBN 0-415-26044-2.
• D. Kim-Gibson, Silence Broken: Korean Comfort Women, 1999. ISBN 0-931209-88-9.
• Hicks, George L. The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War, 1997. ISBN 0-393-31694-7.
• Schellstede, Sangmie Choi. Comfort Women Speak: Testimony by Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military, 2000. ISBN 0-8419-1413-3.

A review of the Tanaka text can be found in the academic journal Intersections, Issue 9:

• Morris, Narrelle. Review of Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation.

A review of some of these books and a history and historiography of the issue, from a critical viewpoint, can be found in issue 58:2 of Monumenta Nipponica:

• Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashii "Comfort Women: Beyond Litigious Feminism"

A work of literature on the issue was created by Korean American writer Nora Okja Keller:

• Nora Okja Keller "Comfort Woman", London, Penguin: 1998. Monumenta Nipponica is an English-language Academic journal featuring Peer-reviewed articles and Book reviews on Japanese ISBN 0-14-026335-7.

A Filipina woman writes of her experiences as a comfort woman for Japanese troops

• Maria Rosa Henson "Comfort woman: Slave of destiny", Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism: 1996. Maria Rosa Luna Henson or " Lola Rosa " (Grandma Rosa (1927- 1997 was the first Filipina to tell the world of her story as a Comfort woman for ISBN 9718686118.

Web

• Asian Women's Fund web site
• Comfort-Women.org
• Korea Dutch Indies Sex Slavery Translation Project
• 121 Coalition
• "The Victims" (from the South Korean Ministry of Gender and Family Equality)
• Japanese Military Sex Slaves{{citation broken|date=2008-05-31}, CBS Report featuring Mike Honda and Nariaki Nakayama's infamous comment comparing "comfort houses"} and cafeterias
• Japan forced women to work as sex slaves during World War II
• Photo gallery at the Seoul Times. Michael Makoto Honda ( Japanese: 本田 実 born June 27 1941) is an American Democratic politician
• A Public Betrayed - How the Japanese Media Betrays its Own People
• Comfort Women (Web page) (English). Australian War Memorial (2006). The Australian War Memorial is Australia 's national memorial to the members of all its armed forces and supporting organisations who have died or participated Retrieved on 2008-01-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1066 - Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England. 1205 - Philip of Swabia becomes King - describes the experience of Jan O’Herne in Java
• Coop, Stephanie (December 23, 2006). Sex slave exhibition exposes darkness in East Timor (Newspaper article). The Japan Times. The Japan Times is one of the few independent English language Newspapers published in Japan: it mainly competes with English editions of Retrieved on 2006-12-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city
• Nakamura, Akemi; Ikuhiko Hata (denies that sex slavery existed) & Yoshiaki Yoshimi (vocally supports the position that sexual slavery occurred) (March 20, 2007). Comfort Women: Were they teen-rape slaves or paid pros?. The Japan Times. Retrieved on 2006-03-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow.
• Friends of “Comfort Women” Australia (FCWA) - not-for-profit organisation focusing on the plight of the Japanese military “Comfort Women” of World War II.
• Mourning, song about comfort women composed by Mu Ting Zhang and directed by Po En Lee

Academic research

• The Comfort Women project
• Hayashi Hirofumi's papers on comfort women
• Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors: Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper 77. The Japan Policy Research Institute (JPRI is a Non-profit organization organized under section 501(c(3 of the U
• Japan's Comfort Women, Theirs and Ours: Book review, Japan Policy Research Institute Critique 9:2.
• Journal of Asian American Studies 6:1, Feb 2003, issue on American studies of comfort women, Kandice Chuh, ed.
• No Organized or Forced Recruitment: Misconceptions about Comfort Women and the Japanese Military: Critical study on comfort women problem.

Japanese official statements

• Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama on the occasion of the establishment of the "Asian Women's Fund" (1995, Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
• Letter from Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to the former comfort women (2001, Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

United States historical documents

• House Concurrent Resolution 226 (June 23, 2003, 108th United States Congress), introduced by Rep. Lane Evans (Illinois 17), referred to House Committee on International Relations; not passed.
• Japanese Comfort Women (1944, United States Office of War Information)

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