| Columbia River | |
| River | |
 Bonneville Dam, in the Columbia River Gorge
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| Countries | Canada, United States |
|---|---|
| States | Washington, Oregon |
| Provinces | British Columbia |
| Tributaries | |
| - left | Kootenay River, Pend Oreille River, Spokane River, Snake River, Deschutes River, Willamette River |
| - right | Kettle River, Sanpoil River, Okanogan River, Yakima River, Cowlitz River |
| Cities | Revelstoke, BC, Tri-Cities, WA, Portland, OR, Vancouver, WA |
| Source | Columbia Lake |
| - location | British Columbia, Canada |
| - elevation | 2,690 ft (820 m) [1] |
| - coordinates | [2] |
| Mouth | Pacific Ocean |
| - elevation | 0 ft (0 m) |
| - coordinates | [3] |
| Length | 1,243 mi (2,000 km) [4] |
| Basin | 258,000 sq mi (668,217 km²) |
| Discharge | mouth |
| - average | 265,000 cu ft/s (7,504 m³/s) [5] [6] [7] |
| - max | 1,240,000 cu ft/s (35,113 m³/s) |
| - min | 12,100 cu ft/s (343 m³/s) |
 Columbia River watershed
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The Columbia River (known as Wimahl or Big River to the Chinook-speaking natives who live on its lowermost reaches)[8] is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C The Kootenay River (spelled Kootenai River for its American portions is the uppermost major tributary of the Columbia River, flowing through British Columbia The Pend Oreille River is a Tributary of the Columbia River, approximately long in northern Idaho and northeastern Washington in the The Spokane River is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately 100 mi (161 km long in northern Idaho and eastern Washington in the United The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U The Deschutes River ( IPA: /dəˈʃuts/ in central Oregon is a major tributary of the Columbia River. The Willamette River (pronounced) is a Tributary of the Columbia River. Kettle River may refer to Rivers Kettle River (Columbia River in British Columbia and Washington Kettle River (Minnesota For other references see Sanpoil (disambiguation. The Sanpoil River (also spelled San Poil) is a Tributary The Okanogan River (called the Okanagan River in Canada) is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately 115 mi (185 km long in southern British The Yakima River is a tributary of the Columbia River in south central and eastern Washington State named for the indigenous Yakama people The Cowlitz River is a River in the state of Washington in the United States, a Tributary of the Columbia River. Revelstoke ('rɛvəlstoʊk (population 7500 municipal est 2005 is a city in southeastern British Columbia, Canada. The Tri-Cities is a metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the U Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Vancouver is a city on the north bank of the Columbia River in the U Columbia Lake is a Lake at the headwaters of the Columbia River, in British Columbia, Canada. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Square Kilometre ( US spelling square kilometer) symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the Alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up The cubic foot is an imperial and US customary (non- metric) unit of Volume, used in the United States Canada and the United Kingdom The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units CM3 redirects here If you were looking for the 3rd game in the Cooking Mama series abbreviated as CM3 see here. The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units The cubic foot is an imperial and US customary (non- metric) unit of Volume, used in the United States Canada and the United Kingdom The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units CM3 redirects here If you were looking for the 3rd game in the Cooking Mama series abbreviated as CM3 see here. The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units The cubic foot is an imperial and US customary (non- metric) unit of Volume, used in the United States Canada and the United Kingdom The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units CM3 redirects here If you were looking for the 3rd game in the Cooking Mama series abbreviated as CM3 see here. The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units Chinookan refers to several groups of Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there The Pacific Northwest is a region in the northwest of North America (the term refers to the land not the ocean It is named after the Columbia Rediviva, the first ship from the western world known to have traveled up the river. Trivia In 1956, a full-scale replica of the ship Sailing Ship ''Columbia'', opened as an attraction at Disneyland. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings [9] It stretches from the Canadian province of British Columbia through the U.S. state of Washington, forming much of the border between Washington and Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The provinces and territories of Canada combine to make up the world's second largest country in total area. British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The river is 1,243 miles (2,000 km) long, and its drainage basin is 258,000 square miles (670,000 km²).
Measured by the volume of its flow, the Columbia is the largest river flowing into the Pacific from North America and is the fourth-largest river in the United States. The river's heavy flow, and its large elevation drop over a relatively short distance, give it tremendous potential for the generation of electricity. It is the largest hydroelectric power producing river in North America with fourteen hydroelectric dams in the United States and Canada. Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page
The Columbia and its tributaries are home to numerous anadromous fish, which migrate between small fresh water tributaries of the river and the Pacific Ocean. Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis on time scales ranging from daily to annual and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers These fish—especially the various species of salmon—have been a vital part of the river's ecology and the local economy for thousands of years. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae.
The taming of the river for human use, and the industrial waste that resulted in some cases, have come into conflict with ecological conservation numerous times since Americans and Europeans began to settle the area in the 18th century. This "harnessing," as it was commonly described in the popular culture of the early 20th century, included dredging for navigation by larger ships, nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research and production, and the construction of dams for power generation, irrigation, navigation, and flood control. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.
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Drainage basin
With an average annual flow of about 265 thousand cubic feet per second (7. 5×103 m3/s),[5] the Columbia is the largest river by volume flowing into the Pacific from North America[10] and is the fourth-largest by volume in the United States. [5] Ranked by size of drainage basin and length, the Columbia is sixth- and twelfth-largest in the U. S. , respectively. [5] The Columbia's highest recorded flow, measured at The Dalles, Oregon, was 1. This page is about the Oregon town For the nearby geological formation The Dalles see Celilo Falls. 24 million cubic feet per second (35×103 m3/s) in June 1894. [11] The river flows 1,243 miles (2,000 km) from its headwaters to the Pacific and drains an area of about 260,000 square miles (670,000 km²). [12] The river's drainage basin covers nearly all of Idaho, large portions of British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington, and small portions of several neighboring states. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. Roughly 85 percent of the drainage basin and 745 miles (1,200 km) of the river's length are in the United States. [13]
Columbia Lake, elevation 2,690 feet (820 m) and the adjoining Columbia Wetlands form the Columbia’s headwaters in the southern Rocky Mountain Trench, a broad, deep and very long glacial valley running between the Canadian Rockies and Columbia Mountains in British Columbia (the province derives its name, indirectly, from the river). Columbia Lake is a Lake at the headwaters of the Columbia River, in British Columbia, Canada. The Columbia Wetlands is a 15070 hectare Wetland in British Columbia, Canada. The Rocky Mountain Trench, also called "the valley of a thousand peaks" is a physiographic feature extending ~1600 km (995 mi from Flathead Lake, Montana In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The Canadian Rockies comprise the Canadian segment of the North American Rocky Mountains range. Columbia Mountains is a group of Mountain ranges located in British Columbia, and partially in Montana, Idaho, Washington. The Columbia District was a fur trading district in the Pacific Northwest region of British North America in the 19th century For its first 200 miles (320 km), the Columbia flows northwest along the Trench through Windermere Lake and the town of Invermere, a region known in British Columbia as the Columbia Valley then northwest to Golden and into Kinbasket Lake. Lake Windermere is a very large widening in the Columbia River. Invermere is a community in eastern British Columbia, Canada, near the border of Alberta. The Columbia Valley is the name used for a region in the Rocky Mountain Trench near the headwaters of the Columbia River between the town of Golden Golden is a town in southeastern British Columbia, Canada, located 262 kilometres (163 miles west of Calgary, Alberta Kinbasket Lake (or Kinbasket Reservoir) is a Reservoir on the Columbia River in southeast British Columbia, north of the town of Revelstoke and Rounding the northern end of the Selkirk Mountains,, the river then turns sharply south through a region known as the Big Bend Country, passing through Revelstoke Lake and the Arrow Lakes; Revelstoke, the Big Bend and the Columbia Valley combined are referred to in BC parlance as the Columbia Country. The Selkirk Mountains are a Mountain range spanning the northern portion of the Idaho Panhandle, eastern Washington, and southeastern British Revelstoke Lake or Lake Revelstoke or Revelstoke Reservoir is a Lake on the Columbia River, north of the town of Revelstoke, The Arrow Lakes in British Columbia, Canada, divided into Upper Arrow Lake and Lower Arrow Lake are widenings of the Columbia River. The Columbia Country is a term used in the Canadian province of British Columbia to refer to the upper basin of the Columbia River in that province Below the Arrow Lakes, the Columbia passes the cities of Castlegar, located at the Columbia's confluence with the lower Kootenay River, and Trail, two major centres of the West Kootenay region. The Kootenay River (spelled Kootenai River for its American portions is the uppermost major tributary of the Columbia River, flowing through British Columbia Trail is a city in the West Kootenay region of the Interior of British Columbia, Canada. The Pend Oreille River joins the Columbia about 2 miles (3 km) north of the U. The Pend Oreille River is a Tributary of the Columbia River, approximately long in northern Idaho and northeastern Washington in the S. –Canada border. [12][14]
The Columbia enters eastern Washington flowing southwest. For the university see Eastern Washington University. Eastern Washington is a Region of the United States defined as the part of It marks the southern and eastern borders of the Colville Indian Reservation and the western border of the Spokane Indian Reservation[15] before turning south and then southeasterly near the confluence with the Wenatchee River in central Washington. The Colville Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation in the eastern part of the U The Spokane (or Spokan) are a Native American people in the northeastern portion of the U The Wenatchee River is a river in Washington originating at Lake Wenatchee and flowing southeast for 53 miles (85 km until it meets the Columbia River This C-shaped segment of the river is also known as the "Big Bend". During the Missoula Floods, 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, much of the floodwaters took a more direct route south, forming the Grand Coulee. The Missoula Floods (also known as the Spokane Floods or the Bretz Floods) refer to the cataclysmic Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington The Grand Coulee is an ancient river bed in the US state of Washington. After the floods, the river found its present course, and the Grand Coulee was left dry. The construction of the Grand Coulee Dam in the mid-20th century backed the river up into the dry coulee, forming the reservoir of Banks Lake. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U Coulee (or coulée) is applied rather loosely to different landforms all of which refer to a kind A reservoir is most broadly a place or hollow vessel where Fluid is kept in Reserve, for later use Banks Lake is a 27 mile long Reservoir in central Washington in the United States. [16]
The river flows past The Gorge Amphitheatre, a prominent concert venue in the Northwest, and then past the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. The Gorge Amphitheatre is a 20000 seat concert venue located above the Columbia River Gorge in George Washington. The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in south-central Washington operated by the United States government The Snake River joins the Columbia in the Tri-Cities area. The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U The Tri-Cities is a metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the U Hanford Reach, a section of the Columbia between Priest Rapids Dam and the Tri-Cities, is the only American stretch of the river that is free-flowing, unimpeded by dams, and not a tidal estuary. The Hanford Reach is a free-flowing section of the Columbia River in Eastern Washington State named after a large Northward bend in the river's otherwise Southbound Priest Rapids Dam is a Hydroelectric, concrete gravity Dam; located on the Columbia River, between the Yakima Firing Range and the Hanford An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open The Columbia makes a sharp bend to the west at the Washington–Oregon border. The river defines that border for the final 309 miles (497 km) of its journey. [17]
Between The Dalles and Portland, the river cuts through the Cascade Mountains, forming the dramatic Columbia River Gorge. Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers The Columbia River Gorge is a Canyon of the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. (With the Klamath River in southern Oregon and the Pit River in northern California, the Columbia is one of only three rivers to pass through the Cascades. The Klamath River ( Ishkêesh in Karuk) approximately long is a major River in southern Oregon and northern California in the The Pit River or Pitt River is a major river watershed draining Northeastern California into the State's Central Valley. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. ) The gorge is known for its strong and steady winds, scenic beauty, and its role as an important transportation link. [18]
The river continues west, bending sharply to the north-northwest between Portland and Vancouver, Washington, at the river's confluence with the Willamette River. Vancouver is a city on the north bank of the Columbia River in the U Confluence, in Geography, describes the meeting of two or more Bodies of water. The Willamette River (pronounced) is a Tributary of the Columbia River. Here the river slows considerably, dropping sediment that might otherwise form a river delta. A delta is a Landform where the mouth of a River flows into an Ocean, Sea, Estuary, Lake or another river The Columbia empties into the Pacific Ocean just past Astoria, Oregon, over the Columbia Bar, a shifting sandbar that makes the river's mouth one of the most hazardous stretches of water to navigate in the world. The City of Astoria is the County seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, United States. The Columbia Bar is a bar at the mouth of the Columbia River between the U A shoal or sandbar (also called sandbank) is a somewhat Linear Landform within or extending into a body of Water, [19]
Geology
- See also: Geology of the Pacific Northwest and Missoula Floods
Volcanic activity in the region has been traced to 40 million years ago, in the Eocene era, forming much of the landscape traversed by the Columbia. Drumheller Channels National Natural Landmark showcases the Drumheller Channels, which are the most significant example in the Columbia Plateau of basalt butte-and-basin The Channeled Scablands are unique Geological Erosion features in the U The Missoula Floods (also known as the Spokane Floods or the Bretz Floods) refer to the cataclysmic Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington The geology of the Pacific Northwest refers to the study of the composition (including rock, Minerals, and Soils) structure physical properties and the The Missoula Floods (also known as the Spokane Floods or the Bretz Floods) refer to the cataclysmic Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in In the Pleistocene era (the last ice age, two million to 700,000 years ago), the river broke through the Cascade Range, forming the Columbia River Gorge. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period The Columbia River Gorge is a Canyon of the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. [20]
The river and its drainage basin experienced some of the world’s greatest known floods toward the end of the last ice age. The Columbia Basin, the Drainage basin of the Columbia River, occupies a large area–about 673396 square kilometres (260000 square miles—of the Pacific An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The periodic rupturing of ice dams at Glacial Lake Missoula resulted in discharge rates ten times the combined flow of all the rivers of the world, as many as forty times over a thousand-year period. Glacial Lake Missoula was a prehistoric Proglacial lake in western Montana that existed periodically at the end of the last Ice age between 15000 and 13000 [21]
Water levels during the Missoula Floods have been estimated at 1,250 feet (380 m) at the Wallula Gap, 830 feet (250 m) at Bonneville Dam, and 400 feet (120 m) over modern Portland, Oregon. The Missoula Floods (also known as the Spokane Floods or the Bretz Floods) refer to the cataclysmic Floods that swept periodically across eastern Washington Wallula Gap is a large Water gap through basalt Anticlines in the Columbia River Basin in the U Bonneville Lock and Dam (ˈbɑnəvɪl consists of several Dam structures that together complete a span of the Columbia River between the U Portland is a city located in the Northwestern United States, near the Confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. [22] The floods' periodic inundation of the lower Columbia River Plateau deposited rich lake sediments, establishing the fertility that supports extensive agriculture in the modern era. The Columbia River Plateau is a geologic and geographic region that lies across parts of the U They also formed many unusual geological features, such as the channeled scablands of eastern Washington. The Channeled Scablands are unique Geological Erosion features in the U
The river was blocked by the collapse of a mountain on the north side of the Columbia River Gorge, likely a result of the Cascadia earthquake in 1700, in an event known as the Bonneville Slide. The original Bridge of the Gods was created during the eighteenth century by the Bonneville Slide, a major Landslide which Dammed the Columbia River The resulting land bridge blocked the river until rising waters tunneled through and finally washed away the sediment. In 1980, the eruption of Mount St. Helens deposited large amounts of sediment in the lower Columbia, temporarily reducing the depth of the shipping channel by 25 feet (7. The 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens, a volcano located in Washington state in the United States was a major volcanic eruption. 6 m)
Indigenous peoples
Humans have inhabited the Columbia River Basin for more than 15,000 years, with a transition to a sedentary lifestyle based mainly on salmon starting about 3,500 years ago. Chief Joseph (March 3 1840 &ndash September 21 1904 was the chief of the Wal-lam-wat-kain (Wallowa band of Nez Perce Indians during General The Nez Perce (ˌnɛzˈpɝs are a Tribe of Native Americans who live in the Pacific Northwest region ( Columbia River Plateau) of the United [23] In 1962, archaeologists found evidence of human activity dating back 11,230 years at the Marmes Rockshelter, near the confluence of the Palouse and Snake rivers in eastern Washington. The Marmes Rockshelter (also known as (45-FR-50) is an Archaeological site first excavated in 1962 near the confluence of the Snake and Palouse Rivers The Palouse River is a Tributary of the Snake River, approximately long located in the U The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U In 1996, the skeletal remains of a 9,000-year-old prehistoric man (dubbed Kennewick Man) were found near Kennewick, Washington. Kennewick Man is the name for the skeletal Remains of a prehistoric man found on a bank of the Columbia River near Kennewick Washington Kennewick is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U The discovery rekindled debate in the scientific community over the origins of human habitation in North America and sparked a protracted controversy over whether the scientific or Native American community was entitled to possess and/or study the remains. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States [24]
Numerous different Native American and First Nations tribes have a historical and continuing presence on the Columbia. First Nations is a term of Ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis people The Sinixt or Lakes people lived on the lower stretch of the Canadian portion (also claimed as part of Okanagan territory) the Secwepemc, Ktunaxa and at one time the Blackfoot on the upper; the Colville, Spokane, Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, and the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs live along the U. The Sinixt (also known as the Sin-Aikst or Sin Aikst, " Arrow Lakes Band " are a First Nations People The Okanagan people also spelled Okanogan, are a First Nations and Native American people whose traditional territory spans the U The Secwepemc ( or) also commonly known as the Shuswap, are a First Nation residing in the Canadian province of British Columbia, primarily The Kootenai (also spelled Kutenai) or Ktunaxa (pronounced in English as /k The Tsuu T'ina Nation (also Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsu T’ina, Tsuut’ina) is a First Nation in Canada. The Colville Native Americans were originally located on the Colville River in the eastern part of the U The Spokane (or Spokan) are a Native American people in the northeastern portion of the U The Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, or simply Yakama Nation (formerly Yakima) is a Native American group with nearly 10000 enrolled The Nez Perce (ˌnɛzˈpɝs are a Tribe of Native Americans who live in the Pacific Northwest region ( Columbia River Plateau) of the United The Umatilla are a Sahaptin -speaking Native American group living on the Umatilla Indian Reservation, who traditionally inhabited the Columbia Plateau The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs is a federally recognized confederation of Native American Tribes who currently live on and govern the Warm Springs Indian Reservation S. stretch. Along the upper Snake River and Salmon River, the Shoshone Bannock Tribes are present. The Salmon River is located in Idaho in the northwestern United States. The Shoshone ( or) are a Native American tribe with three large divisions the Northern the Western and the Eastern The Bannock or Banate are a Native American people who traditionally lived in the northern Great Basin in what is now southeastern Oregon and Near the lower Columbia River, the Cowlitz and Chinook tribes, which are not federally recognized, are present. The Cowlitz are a group of Native American peoples from what is now western Washington state in the United States. Chinookan refers to several groups of Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Federally recognized tribes are those Indian tribes recognized by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs for certain federal government The Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Warm Springs tribes all have treaty fishing rights along the Columbia and its tributaries.
Perhaps a century before Europeans began to explore the Pacific Northwest, the Bonneville Slide created a land bridge in the Columbia Gorge, known to natives as the Bridge of the Gods. A land bridge, in Biogeography, is an Isthmus or other land connection between otherwise separate areas which allows Animals and Plants The original Bridge of the Gods was created during the eighteenth century by the Bonneville Slide, a major Landslide which Dammed the Columbia River The bridge was described as the result a battle between gods, represented by Mount Adams and Mount Hood, vying for the affection of a goddess, represented by Mount St. Helens. Mount Adams may refer to any of four mountains in the United States and one in New Zealand A mountain summit in New Zealand Mount Adams Mount Hood (called Wy'east by the Multnomah tribe) is a Stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc in northern Mount St Helens is an active Stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States The bridge permitted increased interaction and trade between tribes on the north and south sides of the river until it was finally washed away.
The Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River Gorge, and Kettle Falls and Priest Rapids in eastern Washington, were important fishing and trading sites submerged by the construction of dams. The Cascades Rapids (sometimes called Cascade Falls or Cascades of the Columbia) were an area of Rapids along North America 's Columbia River Kettle Falls is a city in Stevens County, Washington, United States, named for the nearby Kettle Falls on the Columbia River Priest Rapids was a narrow fast-flowing stretch of the Columbia River, located in the central region of the U The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, a coalition of various tribes, adopted a constitution and incorporated after the 1938 completion of the Bonneville Dam flooded Cascades Rapids. Bonneville Lock and Dam (ˈbɑnəvɪl consists of several Dam structures that together complete a span of the Columbia River between the U [25]
For 11,000 years, Celilo Falls was the most significant economic and cultural hub for native peoples on the Columbia. Celilo Falls ( Wyam, meaning "echo of falling water" or "sound of water upon the rocks" in several native languages was a tribal fishing It was located east of the modern city of The Dalles. This page is about the Oregon town For the nearby geological formation The Dalles see Celilo Falls. An estimated 15 to 20 million salmon passed through the falls every year, making it one of the greatest fishing sites in North America. [26] The falls were strategically located at the border between Chinookan and Sahaptian speaking peoples and served as the center of an extensive trading network across the Pacific Plateau. Chinookan is a small family of languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples Sahaptian (also Sahaptianic, Sahaptin, Shahaptian) is a sub-grouping of two languages of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native American [27] It was the oldest continuously inhabited community on the North American continent until 1957, when it was submerged by the construction of The Dalles Dam and the native fishing community was displaced. The Dalles Dam is a hydroelectric Dam spanning the Columbia River, two-miles (3 km east of the city of The Dalles Oregon, United States [28] The affected tribes received a $26. 8 million settlement for the loss of Celilo and other fishing sites submerged by the Dalles Dam. [29] The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs used part of its $4 million settlement to establish the Kah-Nee-Tah resort south of Mount Hood. Kah-Nee-Ta High Desert Resort and Casino is a resort in central Oregon, United States on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, near the community of Mount Hood (called Wy'east by the Multnomah tribe) is a Stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc in northern [25]
New waves of explorers
- See also: History of Oregon, History of British Columbia, History of Washington, Oregon Country, and History of the west coast of North America
Some historians believe that Japanese or Chinese vessels blown off course reached the Northwest Coast long before Europeans, possibly as early as 219 B. C. [30] It is unknown whether they landed near the Columbia. There is some evidence that Spanish castaways reached the shore in 1679 and traded with the Clatsop; if these were indeed the first Europeans to see the Columbia, they never managed to send word home to Spain. The Clatsop are a small tribe of Chinookan -speaking Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. [31]
The first documented European discovery of the Columbia River was that of Bruno de Heceta, who in 1775 sighted the river's mouth. Bruno de Heceta (Hezeta y Dudagoitia (1744-1807 was a Spanish Basque explorer of the Pacific Northwest. On the advice of his officers, he did not explore it, as he was short-staffed and the current was strong. He considered it a bay, and called it Ensenada de Asunción. Later Spanish maps based on his discovery showed a river, labeled Rio de San Roque[8], or an entrance, called Entrada de Hezeta. [31]
Following Heceta's reports, British fur trader Captain John Meares searched for the river in 1788, but he misread the currents and concluded that the river did not exist. The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal Fur. John Meares ( c 1756 &ndash 1809, a native of Dublin was a Navigator and explorer best known for his role in initiating a crisis that led to the Vancouver British Royal Navy commander George Vancouver sailed past the mouth in April 1792 and observed a change in the water's color, but he accepted Meares' report and continued on his journey northward. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) Captain George Vancouver [8] Later that month, Vancouver encountered the American captain Robert Gray at the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Robert Gray ( May 10, 1755 – c July 1806 was an American merchant sea-captain and explorer The Strait of Juan de Fuca (also called Juan de Fuca Strait) is a large body of water about long forming the principal outlet for the Georgia Strait and Puget Gray reported that he had seen the entrance to the Columbia and planned to sail into it.
On May 12, 1792, Gray returned south and crossed the Columbia Bar, becoming the first explorer to enter the river. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year In May of 1792 American merchant Sea captain Robert Gray sailed into the Columbia River becoming the first recorded European to navigate into it Gray's fur trading mission had been financed by Boston merchants, who outfitted him with a private vessel named Columbia Rediviva; he named the river after the ship on May 18. Shedd is an unincorporated community in Linn County, Oregon, United States on Oregon Route 99E. Trivia In 1956, a full-scale replica of the ship Sailing Ship ''Columbia'', opened as an attraction at Disneyland. [31]
In October 1792, Vancouver sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton, his second-in-command, up the river. Lieutenant (abbreviated Lt or Lieut) is a Military, Naval, Paramilitary, Fire service, Emergency medical services William Robert Broughton was a British naval officer in the late 18th century Broughton sailed up for some miles, and then his company continued in small boats. He got as far as the Columbia River Gorge, about 100 miles (160 km) upstream, sighting and naming Mount Hood, as well as Point Vancouver, near the present-day city of Vancouver, Washington. The Columbia River Gorge is a Canyon of the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Mount Hood (called Wy'east by the Multnomah tribe) is a Stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc in northern Vancouver is a city on the north bank of the Columbia River in the U Broughton formally claimed the river, its watershed, and the nearby coast for Britain (which Gray had not done on hehalf of the United States). A drainage basin is an extent of Land where Water from Rain or Snow melt drains downhill into a body of water such as a River, The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
Explorers had long speculated about the existence of a Northwest Passage or a great River of the West connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, and some mapmakers depicted it on their maps. The Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago As the Columbia was at the same latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, they now concluded that Gray and Vancouver had discovered the Northwest Passage. A 1798 British map showed a dotted line connecting the Columbia with the Missouri. [31] However, when the American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark charted the vast, unmapped lands of the American West in their overland expedition (1803-05), they found no passage between the rivers. Meriwether Lewis ( August 18, 1774 &ndash October 11, 1809) was an American Explorer, Soldier, and public administrator William Clark may refer to;Politics William Clark (explorer (1770–1838 American soldier and explorer governor of Missouri Territory The Western United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American West or simply the West &mdashtraditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost After crossing the Rocky Mountains, Lewis and Clark built dug-out canoes and paddled down the Snake River, reaching the Columbia at the confluence near the present-day Tri-Cities, Washington. Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. The Tri-Cities is a metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the U They explored a few miles upstream as far as Bateman Island before heading down the Columbia, concluding their journey at the river's mouth and establishing Fort Clatsop. Bateman island is an island located on the Columbia River between the cities of Richland and Kennewick, Washington. Fort Clatsop was the encampment of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the Oregon Country near the mouth of the Columbia River during the winter of 1805-1806 [31]
Canadian explorer David Thompson, of the North West Company, spent the winter of 1807–08 at Kootenae House near the source of the Columbia at present-day Invermere, British Columbia. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page David Thompson ( April 30, 1770 &ndash February 10, 1857) was an English-Canadian fur trader surveyor and map-maker known For the grocery chain see The North West Company. The North West Company was a fur trading business headquartered in Montreal Kootanae House, also spelled Kootenae House was a North West Company fur trading post built by Jaco Finlay under the direction of David Thompson near present-day Invermere is a community in eastern British Columbia, Canada, near the border of Alberta. In 1811, he traveled down the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean, becoming the first European-American to travel the entire length of the river, arriving just after John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company had founded Astoria. For other pages relating to Astor see John Jacob Astor (disambiguation John Jacob Astor (born Johann Jakob or Johann Jacob Astor) ( July The Pacific Fur Company was founded June 23, 1810, in New York City [31]
In 1825, on behalf of the Hudson's Bay Company, Dr. John McLoughlin established Fort Vancouver (currently Vancouver, Washington) on the banks of the Columbia as a fur trading headquarters in the company's Columbia District. For the survivor of the attacks of September 11 2001 see John McLoughlin (World Trade Center attack survivor For articles on John McLaughlin see Fort Vancouver was a 19th century fur trading outpost along the Columbia River that served as the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company in the company's Vancouver is a city on the north bank of the Columbia River in the U The Columbia District was a fur trading district in the Pacific Northwest region of British North America in the 19th century The fort was by far the largest European settlement in the northwest at the time. Every year ships would come from London (via the Pacific) to drop off supplies and trade goods in exchange for the furs. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. For many settlers the fort became the last stop on the Oregon Trail to buy supplies and land before starting their homestead. Pioneers traveled across the Oregon Trail, one of the main overland migration routes on the North American Continent, in wagons in order to settle new parts of the Because of its access to the Columbia River, Fort Vancouver’s influence reached from Alaska to California and from the Rocky Mountains to the Hawaiian Islands. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an Archipelago of 19 Islands and Atolls numerous smaller
The earliest French Canadian employees of the North West Company called the Columbia River Ouragan (translation: "hurricane"), which is one of several plausible origins of the name "Oregon". The origin of the name of the US state of Oregon is unknown and a subject of some dispute
The United States and Britain agreed in 1818 to settle the Oregon Country jointly. British North America consisted of the colonies and territories of the British Empire in continental North America after the end of the American Revolutionary Oregon Country or Oregon (to be distinguished from the American State also called Oregon) was a predominantly American term referring to Americans generally settled south of the river, while British fur traders generally settled to the north. The Columbia was considered a possible border in the boundary dispute that ensued, but ultimately the Oregon Treaty of 1846 established the boundary at the 49th parallel. The Oregon boundary dispute (or Oregon question) arose as a result of competing British and American claims to the Pacific Northwest of The Oregon Treaty, officially known as the Treaty with Great Britain in Regard to Limits Westward of the Rocky Mountains, Buchanan-Packenham The river later came to define most of the border between the U. S. territories of Oregon and Washington. The Oregon Territory is the name applied both to the unorganized Oregon Country claimed by both the United States and Britain (but normally referred to The Washington Territory was a historic Organized territory of the United States that was formed in February 8, 1853 from the portion of the Oregon became a U.S. state in 1857, Washington in 1889. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government
By the turn of the 20th century, the difficulty of navigating the Columbia was seen as an impediment to the economic development of the Inland Empire region east of the Cascades. The Inland Empire is a region in the Pacific Northwest centered on Spokane, Washington, including much of the surrounding Columbia River basin [32] The dredging and dam building that followed would permanently alter the river, disrupting its natural flow but also providing electricity, irrigation, navigability and other benefits to the region. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A body of water such as a River, Canal or Lake, is navigable if it is deep wide and slow enough for a vessel to pass and there are no obstructions like
Navigation
American captain Robert Gray and British captain George Vancouver, who explored the river in 1792, proved that it was possible to cross the Columbia Bar. Robert Gray ( May 10, 1755 – c July 1806 was an American merchant sea-captain and explorer Captain George Vancouver The Columbia Bar is a bar at the mouth of the Columbia River between the U But the challenges associated with that feat remain today; even with modern engineering alterations to the mouth of the river, the strong currents and shifting sandbar make it dangerous to pass between the river and the Pacific Ocean.
The use of steamboats along the river, beginning in 1850,[34] contributed to the rapid settlement and economic development of the region. A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller [35][36] Steamboats operated in several places: on the river's lower reaches, from the Pacific Ocean to Cascades Rapids, from the Cascades to Celilo Falls, and from Celilo to the confluence with the Snake River; on the Wenatchee Reach of eastern Washington; on British Columbia's Arrow Lakes; and on tributaries like the Willamette, the Snake and Kootenay Lake. The Cascades Rapids (sometimes called Cascade Falls or Cascades of the Columbia) were an area of Rapids along North America 's Columbia River The era of steamboats on the Arrow Lakes and adjoining reaches of the Columbia River is long-gone but was an important part of the history of the West Kootenay and The Willamette River flows northwards down the Willamette Valley until it meets the Columbia River at a point 101 miles from the Pacific Ocean, in the Kootenay Lake is a Canadian Lake located between the Selkirk and Purcell Mountain ranges in the Kootenay region of The boats, initially powered by burning wood, carried both passengers and freight throughout the region for many years. Railroads served to connect steamboat lines where interrupted by waterfalls on the river's lower reaches. [37] In the 1880s, railroads maintained by companies such as the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company and the Shaver Transportation Company began to supplement steamboat operations as the major transportation links along the river. The Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company (OR&N was a railroad that operated a rail network of of track running east from Portland, Oregon, United The Shaver Transportation Company is a tug and barge concern based in Portland Oregon, United States. [37]
Opening the passage to Lewiston
As early as 1881, industrialists proposed altering the natural channel of the Columbia to improve navigation. [34] Changes to the river over the years have included the construction of jetties at the river's mouth, dredging, and the construction of canals and navigation locks. Dredging is an Excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly underwater in shallow seas or Fresh water areas with the purpose of Canals are artificial channels for water There are two types of canals water conveyance canals which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water and Waterways A lock is a device for raising and lowering boats between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal Waterways. Today, ocean freighters can travel upriver as far as Portland and Vancouver, and barges can reach as far inland as Lewiston, Idaho. Lewiston is the County seat of and largest city in Nez Perce County, Idaho, United States. [13]
The Columbia Bar, a shifting sandbar at the mouth of the river, makes passage between the river and the Pacific Ocean difficult and dangerous, and numerous rapids along the river hinder navigation. The Columbia Bar is a bar at the mouth of the Columbia River between the U A shoal or sandbar (also called sandbank) is a somewhat Linear Landform within or extending into a body of Water, Jetties, first constructed in 1886,[34] extend the river's channel into the ocean. Strong currents and the shifting sandbar remain a threat to ships entering the river and necessitate continuous maintenance of the jetties.
In 1891 the Columbia was dredged to enhance shipping. The channel between the ocean and Portland and Vancouver was deepened from 17 feet (5. 2 m) to 25 feet (7. 6 m) The Columbian newspaper called for the channel to be deepened to 40 feet (12 m) as early as 1905, but that depth was not attained until 1976. [38]
Navigation locks were first constructed in 1896 around the Cascades Rapids,[39] enabling boats to travel safely through the Columbia River Gorge. [40] The Celilo Canal, bypassing Celilo Falls, opened to river traffic in 1915. In the natural state of the Columbia River, there was an eight mile (13 km stretch above The Dalles known as Celilo Falls that was impassable upstream and navigable [41] In the mid-20th century, the construction of dams along the length of the river submerged the rapids beneath a series of reservoirs. An extensive system of locks allowed ships and barges to pass easily from one reservoir to the next. A navigation channel reaching to Lewiston, Idaho, along the Columbia and Snake Rivers, was completed in 1975. The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U [34] One of the main commodities is wheat, mainly for export. More than 40 percent of all US wheat exports are barged on the Columbia River. [42]
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens caused mudslides in the area, which reduced the Columbia's depth by 25 feet (7. The 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens, a volcano located in Washington state in the United States was a major volcanic eruption. 6 m) for a 4-mile (6. 4 km) stretch, disrupting Portland's economy. [43]
Deeper shipping channel
Efforts to maintain and improve the navigation channel have continued to the present day. In 1990, a new round of studies examined the possibility of further dredging on the lower Columbia. The plans were controversial from the start because of economic and environmental concerns. [44]
In 1999, Congress authorized deepening the channel between Portland and Astoria from 40 feet (12 m) to 43 feet (13 m), which will make it possible for large container and grain ships to reach Portland and Vancouver. [45] The project includes measures to mitigate environmental damage; for instance, for every acre (4,000 m²) of wetland damaged by the project, the Corps must restore 12 acres (49,000 m²) of wetland. [45] However, it has met opposition due to concerns about stirring up toxic sediment on the riverbed. Portland-based Northwest Environmental Advocates brought a lawsuit against the Army Corps of Engineers, but it was rejected by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in August 2006. The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel The US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is a federal court with Appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts [46] In early 2006, the Corps spilled 50 US gallons (190 L) of hydraulic oil into the Columbia, drawing further criticism from environmental organizations. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. [47]
Work on the project began in 2005 and is expected to conclude in 2010. The project's cost is estimated at $150 million. The federal government is paying 65 percent, Oregon and Washington are paying $27 million each, and six local ports make payments as well. [45][48]
Dams: harnessing the river
| This river may have been shaped by God, or glaciers, or the remnants of the inland sea, or gravity or a combination of all, but the Army Corps of Engineers controls it now. Bonneville Lock and Dam (ˈbɑnəvɪl consists of several Dam structures that together complete a span of the Columbia River between the U The Dalles Dam is a hydroelectric Dam spanning the Columbia River, two-miles (3 km east of the city of The Dalles Oregon, United States Rowena is an unincorporated community in Wasco County, Oregon, United States. The Columbia rises and falls, not by the dictates of tide or rainfall, but by a computer-activated, legally-arbitrated, federally-allocated schedule that changes only when significant litigation is concluded, or a United States Senator nears election time. In that sense, it is reliable. Timothy Egan, in The Good Rain[51] |
In 1902, the United States Bureau of Reclamation was established to aid in the economic development of arid western states. The Columbia River Treaty is an international agreement between Canada and the United States of America (U The Bureau of Reclamation (formerly the United States Reclamation Service) is an agency under the U Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants The Western United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American West or simply the West &mdashtraditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost [52] One of its major undertakings was building Grand Coulee Dam to provide irrigation for the 600,000 acres (2,400 km²) of the Columbia Basin Project in central Washington. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U The Columbia Basin Project in Central Washington, USA, is the Irrigation network that the Grand Coulee Dam makes possible With the onset of World War II, the focus of dam construction shifted to production of hydroelectricity. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Irrigation efforts resumed after the war.
River development occurred within the structure of the 1909 International Boundary Waters Treaty between the U. The Boundary Waters Treaty is the 1909 Treaty between the United States and Canada providing mechanisms for resolving any dispute over any waters bordering S. and Canada. In the 1960s, the United States and Canada signed the Columbia River Treaty. The Columbia River Treaty is an international agreement between Canada and the United States of America (U Canada agreed to build dams and provide reservoir storage, and the U. S. agreed to deliver to Canada one-half of the increase in U. S. downstream power benefits as estimated five years in advance. Canada's obligation was met by building three dams (two on the Columbia, and one on the Duncan River), the last of which was completed in 1973. The Duncan River is a long River in the Canadian province of British Columbia.
Today, the main stem of the Columbia River has 14 dams (3 in Canada, 11 in the U. S. ) Four mainstem dams and four lower Snake River dams contain navigation locks to allow ship and barge passage from the ocean as far as Lewiston, Idaho. A lock is a device for raising and lowering boats between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal Waterways. Lewiston is the County seat of and largest city in Nez Perce County, Idaho, United States. The river system as a whole has over 400 dams for hydroelectricity and irrigation. [13] The dams address a variety of demands, including flood control, navigation, stream flow regulation, storage and delivery of stored waters, reclamation of public lands and Indian reservations, and the generation of hydroelectric power. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge See Reclaim for other uses Reclamation is the process of reclaiming something from loss or from a less useful condition [53]
The larger U. S. dams are owned and operated by the federal government (some by the Army Corps of Engineers and some by the Bureau of Reclamation), while the smaller dams are operated by public utility districts, and private power companies. The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel A public utility district ( PUD) is a Special-purpose district or other Governmental Jurisdiction that provides public utilities (such The federally operated system is known as the Federal Columbia River Power System, which includes 31 dams on the Columbia and its tributaries. The Federal Columbia River Power System (FCRPS is a series of multi-purpose hydroelectric faciliies constructed and operated by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and The system has altered the seasonal flow of the river in order to meet higher electricity demands during the winter. At the beginning of the 20th century, roughly 75 percent of the Columbia's flow occurred in the summer, between April and September. By 1980, the summer proportion had been lowered to about 50 percent, essentially eliminating the seasonal pattern. [54]
The installation of dams dramatically altered the landscape and ecosystem of the river. At one time, the Columbia was one of the top salmon-producing river systems in the world. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. [55] Previously active fishing sites, most notably Celilo Falls in the eastern Columbia River Gorge, have exhibited a sharp decline in fishing along the Columbia in the last century, and salmon populations have been dramatically reduced. Celilo Falls ( Wyam, meaning "echo of falling water" or "sound of water upon the rocks" in several native languages was a tribal fishing Fish ladders have been installed at some dam sites to help the fish journey to spawning waters. Fishways, most commonly called fish ladders but also known as fish passes and in Australia also referred to as fish steps, are structures on or around artificial Grand Coulee Dam has no fish ladders and completely blocks fish migration to the upper half of the Columbia River system. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U
Irrigation
The Bureau of Reclamation's Columbia Basin Project focused on the generally dry Columbia River Basin, which features rich loess soil deposited by the Missoula Floods. The Columbia Basin Project in Central Washington, USA, is the Irrigation network that the Grand Coulee Dam makes possible The Columbia Basin, the Drainage basin of the Columbia River, occupies a large area–about 673396 square kilometres (260000 square miles—of the Pacific Loess is a homogeneous typically non stratified porous Friable,slightly coherent often calcareous fine-grained Silty pale yellow or buff windblown ( aeolian Several groups developed competing proposals, and in 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Columbia Basin Project. The Columbia Basin Project in Central Washington, USA, is the Irrigation network that the Grand Coulee Dam makes possible The Grand Coulee Dam was the project's central component; upon completion, it pumped water up from the Columbia to fill the formerly dry Grand Coulee, forming Banks Lake. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U The Grand Coulee is an ancient river bed in the US state of Washington. Banks Lake is a 27 mile long Reservoir in central Washington in the United States. By 1935, the intended height of the dam was increased from a range between 200 feet (61 m) and 300 feet (91 m) to 500 feet (150 m), a height that would extend the lake impounded by the dam all the way to the Canadian border; the project had grown from a local New Deal relief measure to a major national project. The New Deal was the name that United States President Franklin D [53]
The project's initial purpose was irrigation, but the onset of World War II created a high demand for electricity, mainly for aluminum production and for the development of nuclear weapons at the Hanford Site. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including WikipediaNaming A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in south-central Washington operated by the United States government (See next section. ) Irrigation began in 1951. [56] The project provides water to more than 500,000 acres (2,000 km²) of fertile but arid lands in central Washington State. Water from the project has transformed the region from a wasteland barely able to produce subsistence levels of dry-land wheat crops to a major agricultural center. Important crops include apples, potatoes, alfalfa, wheat, corn (maize), barley, hops, beans, and sugar beets. The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) is a flowering plant in the pea family Fabaceae cultivated as an important forage crop Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Hops are the female Flower cones of the hop plant ( Humulus lupulus) Bean is a common name for large plant Seeds of several genera of the family Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae used for human food or animal Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose.
Since 1750, the Columbia has experienced six multi-year droughts, much more severe than any in recent memory. The longest, in the mid-1800s, lasted 12 years, with the river's flow dropping 20 percent below average. Scientists have expressed concern over what such a drought could do to the today's regional economy, with its heavy reliance on the Columbia. [57] In 1992–93, a lesser drought impacted farmers, hydroelectric power producers, shippers, and wildlife managers. [57]
Many farmers in central Washington build dams on their property for irrigation and to control frost on their crops. The Washington Department of Ecology, using new techniques involving aerial photographs, estimated there may be as many as 100 such dams in the area, most of which are illegal. Six such dams have failed in recent years, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to crops and public roads. 14 farms in the area have gone through the permitting process to build such dams legally. [58]
Hydroelectricity
The Columbia's heavy flow and extreme elevation drop over a short distance, 2. Woodrow Wilson "Woody" Guthrie (July 14 1912–October 3 1967 was an American Singer-songwriter and Folk musician Guthrie's musical legacy The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA is an American Federal agency based in the Pacific Northwest. 16 feet per mile (0. 41 m/km), give it tremendous capacity for hydroelectricity generation. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water In comparison, the Mississippi drops less than 0. 65 feet per mile (0. 12 m/km). The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand The Columbia alone possesses a third of the United States's hydroelectric potential. [59]
The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects, the Grand Coulee Dam and the Chief Joseph Dam, are also the largest in the United States[60] [61] and among the largest in the world. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U Chief Joseph Dam is a 5962 foot (18172 m long hydroelectric Dam spanning the Columbia River, upriver from Bridgeport Washington, USA This article provides a list of the largest hydroelectric power stations. [62]
Inexpensive hydro-power supported the emergence of an extensive aluminum industry, which draws tremendous amounts of power. WikipediaNaming Until 2000, the Northwestern United States produced up to 40 percent of the aluminum produced in the U. See also Pacific Northwest The Northwestern United States comprise the northwestern states up to the western Great Plains regions of the United States S. , and 17 percent of the world's aluminum. [63] But the commoditization of power in the early 2000s, coupled with drought that reduced the generation capacity of the river, damaged the industry; by 2003, the U. S. produced only 15 percent of the world's aluminum, many smelters among the Columbia having gone dormant or having gone out of business. [64][65]
Power remains relatively inexpensive along the Columbia, and in recent years high-tech companies like Google have begun to move server farm operations into the area to avail themselves of cheap power. Google Inc is an American public corporation, earning revenue from advertising related to its Internet search, e-mail, online A server farm or server cluster is a collection of Computer servers usually maintained by an enterprise to accomplish server needs far beyond the capability [66]
Downriver of Grand Coulee, each dam’s reservoir is closely regulated by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), Army Corps of Engineers, and various Washington Public Utility Districts to ensure flow, flood control, and power generation objectives are met. The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA is an American Federal agency based in the Pacific Northwest. Increasingly, hydro-power operations are required to meet standards under the U. S. Endangered Species Act and other agreements to manage operations to minimize impacts on salmon and other fish, and some conservation and fishing groups support removing four dams on the lower Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 ( et seq or ESA is the most wide-ranging of the dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U [67]
In 1941, the BPA hired Oklahoma folksinger Woody Guthrie to write songs for a documentary film promoting the benefits of hydropower. Oklahoma ( is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. Woodrow Wilson "Woody" Guthrie (July 14 1912–October 3 1967 was an American Singer-songwriter and Folk musician Guthrie's musical legacy In the month he spent traveling the region Guthrie wrote 26 songs, which have become an important part of the cultural history of the region. [68][69]
Ecology and environment
Fish migration
- See also: Environmental impacts of dams
The Columbia supports several species of anadromous fish that migrate between the Pacific Ocean and fresh water tributaries of the river. Many types of fish undertake migrations on a regular basis on time scales ranging from daily to annual and with distances ranging from a few meters to thousands of kilometers Coho and Chinook (a.k.a King) salmon and Steelhead, all of the genus Oncorhynchus, are ocean fish that migrate up the rivers at the end of their life cycles to spawn. The Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, (from the Russian кижуч kizhuch) is a Species of Anadromous Fish The rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a species of Salmonid native to tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America Oncorhynchus is a Genus of in the family Salmonidae; it contains the Pacific Salmons and Pacific Trouts White sturgeon, which take 25 years to grow to full size, typically migrate between the ocean and the upstream habitat several times during their lives. The white sturgeon ( Acipenser transmontanus, meaning "sturgeon beyond the mountains" also known as the Pacific sturgeon, Oregon sturgeon
Dams interrupt the migration of anadromous fish. Salmon and steelhead return to the streams in which they were born to spawn; where dams prevent their return, entire populations of salmon die. Some of the Columbia and Snake River dams employ fish ladders, which are effective to varying degrees at allowing these fish to travel upstream. Fishways, most commonly called fish ladders but also known as fish passes and in Australia also referred to as fish steps, are structures on or around artificial Another problem exists for the juvenile salmon headed downstream to the ocean. Previously, this journey would have taken two to three weeks. With river currents slowed by the dams, and the Columbia converted from wild river to a series of slackwater pools, the journey can take several months, which increases the mortality rate. [70] In some cases, the Army Corps of Engineers transports juvenile fish downstream by truck or river barge. The Grand Coulee Dam and several dams on the Columbia's tributaries entirely block migration, and there are no migrating fish on the river above these dams. Grand Coulee Dam is a Hydroelectric Gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U Sturgeon have different migration habits and can survive without ever visiting the ocean. In many upstream areas cut off from the ocean by dams, sturgeon simply live upstream of the dam.
In 1994, the salmon catch was smaller than usual in the rivers of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, causing concern among commercial fishermen, government agencies, and tribal leaders. [71][72] U. S. government intervention, to which the states of Alaska, Idaho, and Oregon objected, included an 11-day closure of an Alaska fishery. [73] In April 1994 the Pacific Fisheries Management Council unanimously approved the strictest regulations in 18 years, banning all commercial salmon fishing for that year from Cape Falcon north to the Canadian border. Oswald West State Park is part of the State park system of the U [74][25] In the winter of 1994, the return of coho salmon far exceeded expectations, which was attributed in part to the fishing ban. The Coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, (from the Russian кижуч kizhuch) is a Species of Anadromous Fish [75]
Also in 1994, United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt first proposed the removal of several Pacific Northwest dams because of their impact on salmon spawning. The United States Secretary of the Interior is the head of the United States Department of the Interior. Bruce Edward Babbitt (born June 27, 1938) a Democrat, served as United States Secretary of the Interior and as Governor of Arizona [76] The Northwest Power Planning Council approved a plan that provided more water for fish and less for electricity, irrigation, and transportation. [77] Environmental advocates have called for the removal of certain dams in the Columbia system in the years since. Of the 227 major dams in the Columbia River Basin, the four Washington dams on the lower Snake River are often identified for removal,[78] notably in an ongoing lawsuit concerning a Bush administration plan for salmon recovery. The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U [67] These dams and reservoirs currently limit the recovery of upriver salmon runs to Idaho's Salmon and Clearwater rivers. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. The Salmon River is located in Idaho in the northwestern United States. The Clearwater River is a river in North Central Idaho, which flows from the Bitterroot Mountains along the Idaho- Montana border westward joining the [79] Historically, the Snake produced over 1. 5 million spring and summer Chinook Salmon, a number that has dwindled to several thousand in recent years. [80] Idaho Power Company's Hells Canyon dams have no fish ladders (and do not pass juvenile salmon downstream), and thus allow no steelhead or salmon to migrate above Hells Canyon. Hells Canyon is a ten mile wide Canyon located along the border of eastern Oregon and western Idaho in the United States. In 2007, the destruction of the Marmot Dam on the Sandy River was the first dam removal in the system. The Bull Run Hydroelectric Project is a Portland General Electric (PGE development in the Sandy River basin in the U The Sandy River is a tributary of the Columbia River in northwestern Oregon in the United States. [81] There are plans to remove the Condit Dam on Washington's White Salmon River, and the Milltown Dam on the Clark Fork in Montana. Condit Hydroelectric Project is a development on the White Salmon River in the U The White Salmon River is a river in the Columbia River Gorge, originating on the slopes of Mount Adams. Milltown Dam is an earth-fill gravity-type hydroelectric Dam on the Clark Fork river in the northwest part of the U The Clark Fork is a river in the US states of Montana and Idaho, approximately 360 mi (579 km long Montana ( is a state in the Western United States. One-third of the state in the western part contains numerous mountain ranges (approximately 77 named of the northern [82]
Pollution
In southeastern Washington, a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the river passes through the Hanford Site, established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project. The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in south-central Washington operated by the United States government The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb The site served as a plutonium production complex, with nine nuclear reactors and related facilities located on the banks of the river. This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled From 1944 to 1971, pump systems drew cooling water from the river and, after treating this water for use by the reactors, returned it to the river. Before being released back into the river, the used water was held in large tanks known as retention basins for up to six hours. Longer-lived isotopes were not affected by this retention, and several terabecquerels entered the river every day. Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides The becquerel (symbol Bq) is the SI derived unit of radioactivity. By 1957, the eight plutonium production reactors at Hanford dumped a daily average of 50,000 curies of radioactive material into the Columbia. A CURIE (short for Compact URI) is an abbreviated URI expressed in CURIE syntax and may be found in both XML and non-XML grammars [83] These releases were kept secret by the federal government until the release of declassified documents in the late 1980s. [84] Radiation was measured downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. [85]
The nuclear reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War, and the Hanford site is now the focus of the world’s largest environmental cleanup, managed by the Department of Energy under the oversight of the Washington Department of Ecology and the Environmental Protection Agency. The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in south-central Washington operated by the United States government Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Generally remediation means providing a Remedy, so environmental remediation deals with the removal of Pollution or Contaminants from environmental The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy The Washington Department of Ecology, or simply Ecology, is an environmental regulatory agency for the State of Washington. [86] Nearby aquifers contain an estimated 270 billion US gallons (1 billion m³) of groundwater contaminated by high-level nuclear waste that has leaked out of Hanford's massive underground storage tanks. High level and low level are terms used in classifying levels of description and goals in many fields where Systems could be described from different perspectives Radioactive wastes are Waste types containing radioactive Chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose [87] As of 2008, 1 million US gallons (3,785 m³) of highly radioactive waste is traveling through groundwater toward the Columbia River. This waste is expected to reach the river in 12 to 50 years if cleanup does not proceed on schedule. [88]
In addition to concerns about nuclear waste, numerous other pollutants are found in the river. These include chemical pesticides, bacteria, arsenic, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB). Polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCB s are a class of Organic compounds with 1 to 10 Chlorine atoms attached to Biphenyl which is a molecule composed [89]
Studies have also found significant levels of toxins in fish and the waters they inhabit within the basin. Accumulation of toxins in fish threatens the survival of fish species, and human consumption of these fish can lead to health problems. Water quality is also an important factor in the survival of other wildlife and plants that grow in the Columbia River Basin. The states, Indian tribes, and federal government are all engaged in efforts to restore and improve the water, land, and air quality of the Columbia River Basin and have committed to work together to enhance and accomplish critical ecosystem restoration efforts. A number of cleanup efforts are currently underway, including Superfund projects at Portland Harbor, Hanford, and Lake Roosevelt. Superfund is the common name for the United States environmental policy officially known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act [90]
Timber harvesting further contaminates river water; the Northwest Forest Plan, a piece of federal legislation from 1994, mandated that timber companies consider the environmental impacts of their practices on rivers like the Columbia. The Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP is a series of federal policies and guidelines governing Land use on Federal lands in the Pacific Northwest [91]
On July 1, 2003, Christopher Swain of Portland, Oregon, became the first person to swim the Columbia River's entire length, in an effort to raise public awareness about the river's environmental health. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. [92][89][93]
Major tributaries
| Tributary | Average discharge: |
|
|---|---|---|
| cu ft/s | m³/s | |
| Snake River | 56,900 | 1,611 |
| Willamette River | 35,660 | 1,010 |
| Kootenay River (Kootenai) | 30,650 | 867 |
| Pend Oreille River | 27,820 | 788 |
| Cowlitz River | 9,200 | 261 |
| Spokane River | 6,700 | 190 |
| Deschutes River | 6,000 | 170 |
| Lewis River | 4,800 | 136 |
| Yakima River | 3,540 | 100 |
| Wenatchee River | 3,220 | 91 |
| Okanogan River | 3,050 | 86 |
| Kettle River | 2,930 | 83 |
| Sandy River | 2,260 | 64 |
See also
- Columbia Mountains
- Historic Columbia River Highway, a scenic highway on the Oregon side
- Columbia River Maritime Museum in Astoria, Oregon
- Empire Builder, an Amtrak rail line that follows the river from Portland to Pasco, Washington
- Gray sails the Columbia River, an account of Captain Gray's entry into the river's mouth
- Okanagan Trail, a historic trail that followed the Columbia and Okanagan rivers
- List of Washington rivers
- List of Oregon rivers
- List of British Columbia rivers
References
- ^ Marsh, James (1999). Revelstoke ('rɛvəlstoʊk (population 7500 municipal est 2005 is a city in southeastern British Columbia, Canada. Crown Point is the name of a Promontory on the Columbia River Gorge and an associated State park in the U A tributary is a Stream or River which flows into a mainstem (or parent river A cubic foot per second (also cfs, cu ft/s, cusec and ft³/s) is an Imperial unit / U A cubic metre per second ( m3·s&minus1, m3/s, cumecs or cubic meter per second in American English The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U The Willamette River (pronounced) is a Tributary of the Columbia River. The Kootenay River (spelled Kootenai River for its American portions is the uppermost major tributary of the Columbia River, flowing through British Columbia The Pend Oreille River is a Tributary of the Columbia River, approximately long in northern Idaho and northeastern Washington in the The Cowlitz River is a River in the state of Washington in the United States, a Tributary of the Columbia River. The Spokane River is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately 100 mi (161 km long in northern Idaho and eastern Washington in the United The Deschutes River ( IPA: /dəˈʃuts/ in central Oregon is a major tributary of the Columbia River. The Lewis River is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately long in southwestern Washington in the United States. The Yakima River is a tributary of the Columbia River in south central and eastern Washington State named for the indigenous Yakama people The Wenatchee River is a river in Washington originating at Lake Wenatchee and flowing southeast for 53 miles (85 km until it meets the Columbia River The Okanogan River (called the Okanagan River in Canada) is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately 115 mi (185 km long in southern British Kettle River is a tributary of the Columbia River in northeastern Washington in the United States and southeastern British Columbia in The Sandy River is a tributary of the Columbia River in northwestern Oregon in the United States. Columbia Mountains is a group of Mountain ranges located in British Columbia, and partially in Montana, Idaho, Washington. The Historic Columbia River Highway is an approximately 75-mile (120 km Scenic highway in the U The Columbia River Maritime Museum is a Museum of Maritime history located about ten miles (16 km from the mouth of the Columbia River in Astoria The Empire Builder is a Passenger train route operated by Amtrak in the Midwestern and Northwestern United States. In May of 1792 American merchant Sea captain Robert Gray sailed into the Columbia River becoming the first recorded European to navigate into it Okanagan Trail was an inland route to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush from the Lower Columbia region of the Washington and Oregon Territories in This is a list of rivers in the US state of Washington. By Drainage Basin This list is arranged by drainage basin with respective tributaries This is a partial listing of rivers in the state of Oregon, United States of America. Columbia River. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Columbia Lake. Canadian Geographical Names Data Base. Natural Resources Canada (2008). Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Columbia River. Geographic Names Information System. The Geographic Names Information System ( GNIS) is a database that contains name and locative information about more than two million physical and cultural features located throughout United States Geological Survey (November 28, 1980). The United States Geological Survey ( USGS) is a scientific agency of the United States government. For the town in Argentina, see 28 de Noviembre. Events Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ River Overview. Columbia River Keeper (2000–04). Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ a b c d Kammerer, J. C. (May 1990). Largest Rivers in the United States. U. S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Kimbrough, R. A. ; Ruppert, G. P. ; Wiggins, W. D. ; Smith, R. R. ; Kresch, D. L. (2006). Water Data Report WA-05-1: Klickitat and White Salmon River Basins and the Columbia River from Kennewick to Bonneville Dam. Water Resources Data-Washington Water Year 2005. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Identical data in: Loy, William G. ; Stuart Allan, Aileen R. Buckley, James E. Meecham (2001). Atlas of Oregon. University of Oregon Press, 164–165. ISBN 0-87114-102-7.
- ^ a b c Oldham, Kit (January 13, 2003). Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Captain Robert Gray becomes the first non-Indian navigator to enter the Columbia River, which he later names, on May 11, 1792.. The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History. History Ink. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Loy, William G. ; Stuart Allan, Aileen R. Buckley, James E. Meecham (2001). Atlas of Oregon. University of Oregon Press, 24. ISBN 0-87114-102-7.
- ^ Gerber, Michele (1992). Legend and Legacy: Fifty Years of Defense Production at the Hanford Site. University of Washington Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest. Retrieved on 2008-01-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France.
- ^ Columbia River History: Hydropower. Northwest Power and Conservation Council. Retrieved on 2008-04-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of
- ^ a b Columbia (river, North America). Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Microsoft (2007). Retrieved on 2008-04-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of
- ^ a b c Lang, Bill (2008). Columbia River. Center for Columbia River History. Retrieved on 2008-04-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of
- ^ Land and Data Resource Warehouse Catalogue. Government of British Columbia (2007). Retrieved on 2008-04-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of
- ^ Kowalski, Peter; Kaplan, Brian; Karus, Greg (2001-03-07). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Health consultation. Colville Federated Tribes. United States Department of Health and Human Services. The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting Retrieved on 2007-11-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration
- ^ Simonds, William Joe (1998). Columbia Basin Project: Research on Historic Reclamation Projects (Second Draft). Bureau of Reclamation History Program, Denver, Colorado. Retrieved on 2008-03-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia.
- ^ Oregon's Publicly-Owned Waterways. Public Ownership of Submerged and Submersible Land. Oregon Department of State Lands. Retrieved on 2008-03-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia.
- ^ Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area. USDA Forest Service. Retrieved on 2007-12-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways
- ^ Jacklet, Ben. "Columbia pilot pay attracts port’s eye", Portland Tribune, October 19, 2004. The Portland Tribune is a free weekly newspaper published each Thursday in Portland, Oregon, United States. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 2007-06-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the
- ^ The Geologic History of the Columbia River Gorge. USGS (2001). The United States Geological Survey ( USGS) is a scientific agency of the United States government. Retrieved on 2008-04-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of
- ^ Glacial Lake Missoula and the Missoula Floods. U. S. Geological Survey. Retrieved on 2006-11-19. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1095 - The Council of Clermont, called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land
- ^ Houck, Michael C. ; Cody, M. J. (2000). Wild in the City. Oregon Historical Society. ISBN 0-87595-273-9.
- ^ National Research Council (U. S. ) (2004). Managing The Columbia River: Instream Flows, Water Withdrawals, and Salmon Survival. National Academies Press, p. 18. ISBN 0309091551. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. URL is to the Google Book Search version. Google Book Search is a tool from Google that searches the full text of books that Google scans OCRs, and stores in its digital database
- ^ Lemonick, Michael D. ; Dorfman, Andrea; Cray, Dan. "Who Were The First Americans?", Time, Time, Inc. , March 13, 2006. Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ a b c The Oregon Story. Oregon Public Broadcasting (2001). Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Rohrbacher, George. "Talk of the Past: The salmon fisheries of Celilo Falls", Common-Place, January 2006. Retrieved on 2008-02-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen
- ^ Ronda, James P. (1984). Lewis & Clark among the Indians. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803289901. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. URL is to the Google Book Search version.
- ^ Dietrich, William (1995). Northwest Passage: The Great Columbia River. University of Washington Press, 52. ISBN 0295975466.
- ^ Dietrich, William (1995). Northwest Passage: The Great Columbia River. University of Washington Press, 376. ISBN 0295975466.
- ^ "It is a near certainty that Japanese or Chinese people arrived on the northwest coast long before any European. "Hayes (1999). Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of Exploration and Discovery. Sasquatch Books, 9.
- ^ a b c d e f Hayes (1999). Historical Atlas of the Pacific Northwest: Maps of Exploration and Discovery. Sasquatch Books.
- ^ Reeder, Lee B. . "Open the Columbia to the Sea", Center for Columbia River History. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. URL is to a reprint of a 1902 magazine edition of the Pendleton Daily Tribune published by E. P. Dodd.
- ^ Hopper Dredges. GlobalSecurity. org (2000–08). Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ a b c d "The Oregon Story: A Chronology of Ports in Oregon", Oregon Public Broadcasting, January 18, 2007. Oregon Public Broadcasting (OPB is the primary Public broadcasting network for most of Oregon as well as southern Washington, with ( As of 2006 Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-02-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor
- ^ Affleck, Edward L. (2000). A Century of Paddlewheelers in the Pacific Northwest, the Yukon, and Alaska. Vancouver, BC: Alexander Nicholls Press, page 6. ISBN 0-920034-08-X.
- ^ Corning, Howard McKinley (1977). Willamette Landings (2nd Ed. ). Portland, Ore. : Oregon Historical Society. ISBN 0-87595-042-6.
- ^ a b Timmen, Fritz (1972). Blow for the Landing. Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers. ISBN 0-87004-221-1.
- ^ "Rewind--Editorials from our archives: 1905: 40 ft (12 m) depth wanted", The Columbian Publishing Co. , December 26, 2005. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ The Oregonian, January 1, 1895, p. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1895 ( MDCCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year 8
- ^ Scott, Harvey W.; Leslie M. Harvey Whitefield Scott ( February 1, 1838 &ndash August 7, 1910) was an American pioneer, Newspaper editor Scott (1924). History of the Oregon Country. Cambridge: Riverside Press, Vol. 3, p. 190.
- ^ The Dalles-Celilo Canal on Columbia River opens to traffic on May 5, 1915.. HistoryLink. org. Retrieved on 2007-11-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus"
- ^ Supporting Columbia-Snake River Commerce. Northwest RiverPartners. Retrieved on 2008-03-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king
- ^ Harris, Stephen L. (1988). Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes. Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula. page 209. ISBN 0-87842-220-X
- ^ Koberstein, Paul; Durbin, Kathie. "Cleanup study already bogged in controversy", The Oregonian, January 21, 1990. Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ a b c Koenninger, Tom. "Dredging Columbia a very big job", The Columbian, March 7, 2007. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ Columbian editorial writers. "In our view - monitor the dredging", The Columbian, August 26, 2006. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ Robinson, Erik. "State rebukes Corps of Engineers over oil spill", The Columbian, March 3, 2006. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ "Bush budget offers $15 million for dredging", The Columbian, February 8, 2006. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ "Wild salmon 1: Species declining fast", Morning Edition, National Public Radio, June 10, 1991. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Retrieved on 2008-03-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden.
- ^ King, Anna. "The Modern Day Columbia River – Part Two: Still Waters Run Deep And Deadly For Columbia River Salmon", Oregon Public Broadcasting, October 2, 2007. Events 1187 - Siege of Jerusalem: Saladin captures Jerusalem after 88 years of Crusader rule Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-03-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden.
- ^ Egan, Timothy (1990). The Good Rain. Knopf. ISBN 0394577248.
- ^ Bureau of Reclamation - About Us. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (2008). Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ a b Pitzer, Paul (1994). Grand Coulee: Harnessing a Dream. Pullman, Washington: Washington State University Press. ISBN 978-0874221107.
- ^ National Research Council (U. S. ) (2004). Managing The Columbia River: Instream Flows, Water Withdrawals, and Salmon Survival. National Academies Press, 4, 22. ISBN 0309091551. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. URL is to the Google Book Search version. Google Book Search is a tool from Google that searches the full text of books that Google scans OCRs, and stores in its digital database
- ^ Rosenberg, John. "Sacred and shared - clergy work to save Columbia River", Christian Century, July 19, 2000. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ "Chapter 2", Lake Roosevelt, Administrative History. U. S. National Park Service: Department of the Interior. Retrieved on 2006-11-20. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs,
- ^ a b Hines, Sandra; Sands, Yasmeen; Hunt, Lori Bona (2005-02-14). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Tree-ring data reveals multiyear droughts unlike any in recent memory. University of Washington Office of News and Information. Retrieved on 2008-01-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1340 - King Edward III of England is declared King of France.
- ^ McNiel, Michelle. "State cracking down on illegal frost-control dams", Wenatchee World, March 21, 2008. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ Harden, Blaine (1996). A River Lost: The Life and Death of the Columbia. W. W. Norton & Company, p. 17. ISBN 0-393-03936-6.
- ^ Renewable Energy Sources: A Consumer's Guide. U. S. Department of Energy: Energy Information Administration (2004). Retrieved on 2007-11-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - The Council of Clermont, called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land
- ^ Chief Joseph Dam. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (August 2007). Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.
- ^ World's Largest Hydroelectric Plants. Pearson Education (Infoplease) (2000–08). Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Kinsey Hill, Gail. "Aluminum industry powering down", The Oregonian, March 11, 2001. Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-12-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways
- ^ Fehrenbacher, Gretchen. "Aluminum all but gone", The Columbian, February 23, 2003.
- ^ McCall, William. "BPA chief to detail strategy for troubled power broker", The Columbian, November 22, 2002. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Mehta, Stephanie N. . "Behold the server farm! Glorious temple of the information age!", Fortune, August 7, 2006. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ a b Milstein, Michael. "Judge rips latest plan to help salmon", The Oregonian, 2007-12-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Retrieved on 2008-01-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1431 - Joan of Arc is handed over to the Bishop Pierre Cauchon.
- ^ Heinz, Spencer. "Rolling along the Columbia, driving for Woody Guthrie", The Oregonian, July 8, 2007. Events 939 - The Major Occultation or Ghaybat el-Kubra of Muhammad al-Mahdi 1099 - First Crusade: 15000 Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Morrow, Lance. "This Land Is Whose Land? Times and priorities change. Woody Guthrie hailed Lewis and Clark for finding a place to build dams. Today his tune might be different", Time, July 8, 2002. Events 939 - The Major Occultation or Ghaybat el-Kubra of Muhammad al-Mahdi 1099 - First Crusade: 15000 See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Mueller, Ted (1997). Fire, Faults, and Floods: A Road and Trail Guide Exploring the Origins of the Columbia River Basin. Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho Press, 229. ISBN 9780893012069.
- ^ Balzar, John. "As Wild Salmon Fade, Northwest Losing a Symbol", Los Angeles Times, April 2, 1994. Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Anne Swardson. "Mystery of Vanishing Salmon Puzzles Canadians; Commercial Fishermen, Indian Groups and Officials Dispute Who's to Blame for Drop in Harvest", The Washington Post, December 31, 1994. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Enge, Marilee. "Lawsuit targets fishery closure: Alaska seeks to reverse policy on Snake River king salmon run", March 3, 1994. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ "Strict Fishing Limits Are Passed To Protect Salmon in Northwest", The New York Times, April 10, 1994. Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ "Massive coho return surprises fisheries", The News Tribune, December 28, 1994. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Healy, Melissa. "Are West's Dams Set in Stone? Bruce Babbitt dreams of razing some of them to transform rivers and the Interior Department. But businesses dependent on cheap water and power fear the added expense and predict job losses.", Los Angeles Times, March 31, 1994. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Kenworthy, Tom. "Plan to Save Salmon Roils Northwest ; Change Seen Causing Ripples in Economy", The Washington Post, December 15, 1994. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Robinson, Erik. "Pressure builds on Snake River dams", The Columbian, April 15, 2007. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Monroe, Bill. "Oregon's delicate balance", The Oregonian, September 11, 2006. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ Milstein, Michael. "Court finds feds no help to fish", The Oregonian, April 10, 2007. Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China.
- ^ "A river released to the wild", The Oregonian, July 29, 2007. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Colburn, Kevin (March 14, 2008). Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Clark Fork to Flow Free This Month. AmericanWhitewater. org. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ Washington Physicians for Social Responsibility (2007–08). Hanford History. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Hanford Health Information Network (2000). An Overview of Hanford and Radiation Health Effects. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ "Radiation Flowed 200 Miles to Sea, Study Finds", The New York Times, July 17, 1992. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy (2008). The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Hanford Site: Hanford Overview. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ Wolman, David. "Fission Trip", Wired Magazine, April 2007, p. 78.
- ^ Washington Department of Ecology. The Washington Department of Ecology, or simply Ecology, is an environmental regulatory agency for the State of Washington. Hanford Quick Facts. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ a b Jacklet, Ben. "Activist plans an epic swim", The Portland Tribune, July 24, 2001. Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (2008). EPA report on the Columbia Columbia River Basin: A National Priority. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Pegg, J. R. . "Bush Change to NW Forest Plan Would Ease Logging", Environment News Service, November 26, 2002. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus" See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- ^ Wentz, Patty. "Swimming to astoria", Willamette Week, May 29, 2002. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
- ^ Anderson, Jennifer. "Challenge sets off global ripples", The Portland Tribune, July 9, 2004. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 2007-06-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
Further reading
- MacGibbon, Elma (1904). "Columbia River and Pullman", Leaves of knowledge (DJVU), Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection, Shaw & Borden.
External links
- Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission
- Columbia River Water Trail A collaboratively edited site with information for people who wish to travel the Columbia River by kayak or canoe.
- US Environmental Protection Agency Columbia River Basin
- Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law See Columbia River. Peace Palace Library
- National Geographic on the Columbia
- BC Hydro Generation System Information
- Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area
- CORIE, a Columbia River observation and prediction system
- University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Tollman and Canaris Photographs Photographs document the salmon fishing industry on the southern Washington coast and in the lower Columbia River around the year 1897 and offer valuable insights into the history of commercial salmon fishing and the techniques used at the beginning of the 20th century.
- Columbia River Fishing Guides Association
- Timeline of exploration of the Columbia, dating back to the 17th century.