Colosseum
The Colosseum
Location	Regione III Isis et Serapis
Built in	70-80 AD
Built by/for	Vespasian, Titus
Type of structure	Amphitheatre
Colosseum

The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who An amphitheatre (alternatively amphitheater) is an open-air venue for spectator sports concerts rallies or theatrical performances Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. An amphitheatre (alternatively amphitheater) is an open-air venue for spectator sports concerts rallies or theatrical performances Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new Origins The Romans are generally famous for their advanced Engineering accomplishments although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas concepts

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death ^[1] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Originally capable of seating around 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought It remained in use for nearly 500 years with the last recorded games being held there as late as the 6th century. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its The building eventually ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 It was later reused for such varied purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for A quarry is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or Minerals are extracted Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings

Although it is now in a ruined condition due to damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum has long been seen as an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer An icon (from Greek εἰκών eikōn, "image" is a religious work of art most commonly a painting from Eastern Christianity. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Today it is one of modern Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession to the amphitheatre. A tourist attraction is a place of interest where Tourists visit typically for its inherent or exhibited cultural value historical significance natural or built beauty or Good Friday, also called Holy Friday or Great Friday, is the Friday preceding Easter Sunday ("Pascha" History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply ^[2]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin. Italian euro coins have a design unique to each denomination though there is a common theme of famous Italian works of art from one of Italy 's renowned artists 5 cent euro coin (€005 is the third lowest domination of the Euro coins.

Name

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name. The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69&ndash79 ^[3] This name is still used frequently in modern English, but it is generally unknown. Modern English is the form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift, completed in roughly 1550 In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic. ^[4][5] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli). For the Flavian Amphitheater in Rome, see Colosseum The Flavian Amphitheater ( Anfiteatro flaviano puteolano) located Pozzuoli is a city of the Province of Naples, in the Italian region of Campania. ^[6]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby. The Colossus of Nero was an enormous Statue that the Emperor Nero had erected in his image in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea. ^[1] This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called In Greek mythology the Sun was personified as Helios (ˈhiliˌɑs ( Ἥλιος Latinized as Helius) Nero's head was also replaced several times and substituted with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, the Venerable Bede (c. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c 672–735) wrote a famous epigram celebrating the symbolic significance of the statue: Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world"). ^[7] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). Childe Harold's Pilgrimage is a lengthy Narrative poem written by the poet George Gordon Lord Byron when at Kinsham. However, at the time that Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre. In Linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called Noun classes are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words every noun must belong

The Colossus did eventually fall, probably being pulled down to reuse its bronze. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" (a neuter noun) had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma. The Temple of Venus and Roma (Latin Templum Veneris et Romae) was the largest known temple in Ancient Rome. ^[8]

The name was further corrupted to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese). The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal.

History

Ancient

A map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, with the Colosseum at the upper right corner

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian^[1] in around 70–72. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. The Caelian Hill (Latin Mons Caelius, Italian Celio) is one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome. The Esquiline Hill is one of the celebrated Seven Hills of Rome. The Palatine Hill ( Latin: Collis Palatium or Mons Palatinus) is the centermost of the Seven Hills of Rome Canals are artificial channels for water There are two types of canals water conveyance canals which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water and Waterways By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The Domus Aurea ( Latin for "Golden House" was a large landscaped portico Villa, designed to take advantage of artificially created landscapes The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another The Colossus of Nero was an enormous Statue that the Emperor Nero had erected in his image in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea. ^[8]

The area was transformed under Vespasian and his successors. Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty. " This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories. ^[8] Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who ^[1] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was The inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre were held in AD  80 on the orders of the Roman Emperor Titus, to celebrate the completion of the The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly-designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Hypogeum or Hypogaeum (plural hypogea) literally means "underground" from Greek hypo (under and He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius^[9]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–450), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. Flavius Theodosius ( 10 April, 401 – July 28, 450) called the Calligrapher, known in English as Theodosius II, was Flavius Placidius Valentinianus ( July 2, 419 &ndash March 16, 455) known in English as Valentinian III, was among the last The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523. ^[8]

Medieval

Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. The Frangipani or Frangipane ("Breadbreakers" from Italian frangere il pane) was a powerful Roman Patrician clan in the

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake of 1349, causing the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime. Calcium oxide ( CaO) commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used Chemical compound. ^[8] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

Modern

Interior of the Colosseum, Rome. Thomas Cole, 1832. Thomas Cole ( February 1, 1801 - February 11, 1848) was a 19th century American artist Note the Stations of the Cross around the arena and the extensive vegetation, both removed later in the 19th century. Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. Pope Sixtus V ( December 13, 1521 &ndash August 27, 1590) born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590 ^[10] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned. Bullfighting or Tauromachy (from Greek ταυρομαχία - tauromachia, "bull-fight" is a traditional spectacle of Spain

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. Pope Benedict XIV ( March 31, 1675 &ndash May 3, 1758) born Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini, was Pope from August 17 The term martyr ( Greek μάρτυς martys "witness" is most commonly used today to describe an individual who sacrifices their life (or personal freedom He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). This article describes the Christian Passion For other meanings see Passion. Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply In its first three centuries the Christian church endured periods of persecution at the hands of Roman authorities Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Mussolini in the 1930s. ^[8]

Between 1993 and 2000, parts of the outer wall were cleaned (left) to repair the Colosseum from automobile exhaust damage (right)

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lira ($19. The lira (plural lire) was the Currency of Italy between 1861 and 2002 3m / €20. 6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,^[11], or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Jersey in December, 2007 [1]

Today, the Colosseum is a common background in the busy metropolis that is modern Rome. New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States.

Due to the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),^[12] Paul McCartney (May 2003),^[13] and Elton John (September 2005). Ray Charles Robinson ( September 23, 1930 – June 10, 2004) known by his Stage name Ray Charles, was an American Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE (born 18 June 1942 is an English rock Singer, Bass guitarist songwriter Composer, Sir Elton Hercules John CBE (born Reginald Kenneth Dwight on 25 March 1947 is an English pop / rock Singer, Composer ^[14]

On July 7, 2007, the Colosseum was voted as one of New Open World Corporation's New Seven Wonders of the World. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. New Seven Wonders of the World is a project that attempts to revive the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World concept with a list of modern wonders

Physical description

Exterior

The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (right)

Original façade of the Colosseum

Entrance LII of the Colosseum, with Roman numerals still visible

Cross-section from the Lexikon der gesamten Technik (1904)

Unlike earlier amphitheatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. A facade or façade (fəˈsɑːd is generally one side of the exterior of a Building, especially the front but also sometimes the sides and rear Roman numerals are a Numeral system originating in ancient Rome, adapted from Etruscan numerals. The Lexikon der gesamten Technik is an illustrated German-language Encyclopedia of Architectural, Engineering and Manufacturing It is elliptical in plan and is 189 metres (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 metres (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres. The height of the outer wall is 48 metres (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 metres (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval (287 ft) long and (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. A cubic yard is an Imperial / US customary (non- SI non- metric) unit of Volume, used in the United States, Canada and Travertine is a Sedimentary rock. It is a natural chemical precipitate of Carbonate minerals; typically Aragonite, but often recrystallized to ^[8] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. An arcade is a passage or walkway covered over by a succession of Arches or vaults supported by columns For the 2004 film directed by Yann Moix see Podium (film. A podium (plural podia) is a Platform that An attic is a space found directly below the pitched Roof of a house or other building (also called garret, Loft or The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. The Doric order was one of the three '''orders''' or organizational systems of Ancient Greek or Classical architecture; the other two Canonical The Ionic order column forms one of the three '''orders''' or '''organizational systems''' of Classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the The Corinthian order is one of the Classical orders of Greek and Roman Architecture, characterized A pilaster is a slightly-projecting flattened Column built into or applied to the face of a wall ^[15] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. In Architecture a corbel (or console) is a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any superincumbent weight They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. An awning is a secondary covering attached to the exterior wall of a building A Velarium (curtain was a type of Awning used in Roman times It stretched over the whole of the Cavea (seating area in the Colosseum to protect This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. ^[1] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium. Misenum is the site of an ancient port in Campania, in southern Italy. A Velarium (curtain was a type of Awning used in Roman times It stretched over the whole of the Cavea (seating area in the Colosseum to protect ^[16]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. ^[1] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Stucco or render is a material made of an aggregate, a binder, and water Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII to LIV still survive. ^[8]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. vomitorium (plural vomitoria is a passage situated below or behind a tier of seats in an amphitheatre through which crowds can "spew out" at the end of a performance These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the

Interior seating

Side view of Colosseum seating

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. In Ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins ( sacerdos Vestalis) were the virgin Holy female Priests of Vesta, the Goddess of the Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators. ^[8]

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number. ^[17]

Arena and hypogeum

The Colosseum arena, showing the hypogeum. The wooden walkway is a modern structure.

Detail of the hypogeum

The arena itself was 83 metres by 48 metres (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). ^[8] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen. ^[8]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. The Ludus Magnus or The Great Gladiatorial Training School is the largest of the Gladiatorial Arenas in Rome which was built Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds. ^[8]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms^[8] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering

Supporting buildings

The Colosseum - a view from Colle Oppio

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. The Ludus Magnus or The Great Gladiatorial Training School is the largest of the Gladiatorial Arenas in Rome which was built This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning. A Velarium (curtain was a type of Awning used in Roman times It stretched over the whole of the Cavea (seating area in the Colosseum to protect ^[8]

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine. The Arch of Constantine (Italian Arco di Costantino is a Triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill.

Use

Pollice Verso ("Thumbs Down") by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872

The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. Pollice verso or verso pollice is a Latin phrase meaning "with a turned thumb" that is used in the context of gladiatorial combat. Jean-Léon Gérôme ( May 11, 1824 – January 10, 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought The shows, called munera, were always given by individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstration of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. Venatio ("hunt" was a form of entertainment in Roman Amphitheaters involving the Hunting and slaying of Wild animals Exotic wild beasts This utilised a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippos, elephants, giraffes, lions, panthers, leopards, crocodiles and ostriches. Rhinoceros (raɪˈnɒsərəs often colloquially abbreviated rhino, is a name used to group five extant species of Odd-toed ungulates in the family The hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus amphibius) from the Greek ἱπποπόταμος ( hippopotamos, ιππος hippos meaning "horse" Elephants ( family: Elephantidae) are large land Mammals of the order Proboscidea. The giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis) is an African Even-toed ungulate Mammal, the tallest of all land-living Animal Species The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera. The leopard (lɛpɚd Panthera pardus) is an Old World Mammal of the Felidae family and the smallest of the four roaring The leopard (lɛpɚd Panthera pardus) is an Old World Mammal of the Felidae family and the smallest of the four roaring A crocodile is any Species belonging to the family Crocodylidae (sometimes classified instead as the Subfamily Crocodylinae) The Ostrich ( Struthio camelus) is a large Flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East) Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Dacia, in ancient geography was the land of the Dacians. It was named by the ancient Hellenes ( Greeks) " Getae "

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. The naumachia (in Latin naumachia, from the Ancient Greek ναυμαχία/ naumachía, literally "naval combat" in the Ancient Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum). ^[8]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

Today

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free. ^[18] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Eros (Ἔρως in Greek mythology, was the primordial god of lust, Love, and Intercourse; he was also worshipped as a fertility Part of the arena floor has been re-floored.

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope John Paul II would perform his new form of the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colloseum^[19][20] on Good Fridays. Pope Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply The Scriptural Way of the Cross or Scriptural Stations of the Cross is a version of the traditional Stations of the Cross inaugurated as a Roman Catholic devotion Good Friday, also called Holy Friday or Great Friday, is the Friday preceding Easter Sunday ("Pascha" ^[2]

Christians and the Colosseum

The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883). Jean-Léon Gérôme ( May 11, 1824 – January 10, 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style

The Colosseum has long been regarded as having been the scene of numerous martyrdoms of early Christians. The term martyr ( Greek μάρτυς martys "witness" is most commonly used today to describe an individual who sacrifices their life (or personal freedom However, this belief appears to have arisen only around the 16th century. Roman and early medieval accounts refer to Christians being martyred in various vaguely described locations in Rome (in the amphitheatre, in the arena etc) but without specifying which; there were, in fact, numerous stadia, amphitheatres and circuses in Rome. Saint Telemachus, for instance, is often said to have died in the Colosseum, but Theodoret's account of his death merely states that it happened "in the stadium" (eis to stadio). Saint Telemachus/Saint Tilemahos (Telemachus/Tilemahos from Homer's Odyssey meaningone who fights a battle without weapons/from far away - also' Almachus', intervened in Theodoret (c 393 &ndash c 457 was an influential author theologian and Christian Bishop of Cyrrhus Syria (423-457 Similarly, the death of Saint Ignatius of Antioch is recorded as having been in "the arena", without specifying which arena. Saint Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) (ca 35-110 was the third Bishop and Patriarch of Antioch and possibly a student of the Apostle John

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome" is a much-copied medieval Latin text that served generations of pilgrims and tourists as a guide to the city of The Circus Flaminius was a large circular area of land in Rome that contained a small race-track reserved for mysterious games and various other buildings and monuments Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

Martyrdom of Saint Ignatius of Antioch, often said to have taken place in the Colosseum. Saint Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) (ca 35-110 was the third Bishop and Patriarch of Antioch and possibly a student of the Apostle John Note how the saint is framed by a stylized depiction of the Colosseum.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566-1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. Pope This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time to come. Pope Clement X ( July 13, 1590 &ndash July 22, 1676) born Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, was Pope from April 29

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740-1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. Saint Leonard of Port Maurice (San Leonardo da Porto Maurizio (born 20 December[[ 676]] at Porto Maurizio on the Riviera di Ponente; died at the monastery Pope Benedict XIV ( March 31, 1675 &ndash May 3, 1758) born Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini, was Pope from August 17 Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Saint Benedict Joseph Labre (Benoît Joseph Labre ( March 25, 1748 – April 17, 1783) was a French Mendicant and Alms or almsgiving exists in a number of religions In general it involves giving materially to another as an act of religious virtue Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre. Good Friday, also called Holy Friday or Great Friday, is the Friday preceding Easter Sunday ("Pascha" Stations of the Cross (or Way of the Cross; in Latin, Via Crucis; also called the Via Dolorosa or Way of Sorrows, or simply

Flora

Plants on the inner walls of the Colosseum

The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. In Botany, flora ( Plural: floras or florae has two meanings The first meaning flora of an area or of time period, refers to all Domenico Panaroli (1587-1657 was a physician and herbalist of Rome Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, due to concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned. ^[8] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.

The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of Birds Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability One other romantic reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported on the animals brought there from all corners of the empire.

Popular culture

The Colosseum as digitally recreated for Gladiator

The iconic status of the Colosseum has led it to be featured in numerous films and other items of popular culture:

• Cole Porter's song "You're the Top" from the musical Anything Goes (1934) includes the line "You're the Top, You're the Colosseum"
• In the 1953 film Roman Holiday, the Colosseum famously serves as the backdrop for several scenes. Gladiator is a 2000 Epic film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen Cole Albert Porter (June 9 1891 &ndash October 15 1964 was an American Composer and songwriter from Peru, Indiana. " You're The Top " is a Cole Porter song from the 1934 musical Anything Goes. Anything Goes is a musical with music and lyrics by Cole Porter. Roman Holiday is a 1953 Romantic comedy. The film introduced American audiences to Belgian-born actress Audrey Hepburn, who won the Academy
• In the 1954 film Demetrius and the Gladiators, the Emperor Caligula anachronistically sentences the Christian Demetrius to fight in the Colosseum. Demetrius and the Gladiators is a 1954 Sword and sandal Drama film and a sequel to The Robe. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor
• The conclusion of the 1957 film 20 Million Miles to Earth takes place at the Colosseum. 20 Million Miles to Earth is a American Science fiction film written by Bob Williams and Christopher Knopf from an original treatment by Charlott
• In the 1972 film Way of the Dragon, Bruce Lee fought Chuck Norris in the Colosseum. Way of the Dragon ( released as Return of the Dragon in the U Bruce Lee ( November 27 1940 – July 20 1973 was an American-born Martial artist, Philosopher, instructor, Martial arts actor and the Carlos Ray "Chuck" Norris (born March 10 1940 is an American martial artist, action star and Television and Film
• In Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, the Colosseum was re-created via computer-generated imagery (CGI) to "restore" it to the glory of its heyday in the 2nd century. Sir Ridley Scott (born November 30 1937 in South Shields, Tyne and Wear) is a British Academy Award Nominated and Golden Globe Emmy Award and BAFTA Award winning Gladiator is a 2000 Epic film directed by Ridley Scott and starring Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen Computer animation Computer-generated imagery (also known as CGI) is the application of the field of Computer graphics or more specifically 3D computer graphics The depiction of the building itself is generally accurate and it gives a good impression of what the underground hypogeum would have been like.
• In the 2008 film Jumper, the Colosseum was used as the location for one of the battles between the jumpers and those trying to kill them. Jumper is a 2008 Science fiction film from 20th Century Fox and New Regency Productions.
• In the 2003 science fiction film The Core the Colosseum along with the rest of Rome is destroyed by a huge lightning superstorm.

The Colosseum's fame as an entertainment venue has also led the name to be re-used for modern entertainment facilities, particularly in the United States, where theatres, music halls and large buildings used for sport or exhibitions have commonly been called Colosseums or Coliseums. Music hall is a form of British theatrical Entertainment which was popular between 1850 and 1960 ^[21]

The optical disc authoring software program Nero Burning ROM uses an image of the Colosseum on fire as one of its main icons, even though Emperor Nero's Great Fire of Rome (which the program's name and icon refer to) occurred in 64 AD, before the Colosseum was built. Optical disc authoring software is Computer software for authoring optical discs including CD-ROMs and DVDs They are also known by synonyms Nero Burning ROM, commonly called just Nero, is a popular optical disc authoring program for Microsoft Windows and Linux by Nero AG Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the

References

The Colosseum from Colle Oppio gardens

External links

• Satellite view of Colosseum — at WikiMapia
• LacusCurtius entry on the Colosseum
• Photos and podguides of Rome Free images and audio guides of the Colosseum
• Colosseum Information about the Colosseum and photo gallery on worldstadia. com
• The Roman Colosseum, Rome virtual reality movies and free audio guide for iPod or MP3
• ArtLex Art Dictionary — a cross-section view of the colosseum
• Colosseum's Flora
• Photos Colosseum (Ipix panorama)
• Views of the Flavian Amphitheatre (Coliseum)
• High quality interactive virtual tour of the colosseum