Colonization of Mars

Mars

Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization. Its surface conditions and the likely availability of water make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in this solar system, other than Earth. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The Moon has been proposed as the first location for human colonization, but unlike Earth's moon, Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic life. With an environment suitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a stable ecosystem in the far future, Mars is considered by most scientists, including Stephen Hawking,^[1] as the ideal planet for future colonization and renewal of life. Stephen William Hawking CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942 is a British theoretical physicist. The colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the imagination of many people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars provides a useful thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity. Some commentators have argued that discussing the colonization of Mars provides an optimistic alternative for humanity's future in contrast with negative paradigms such as the War on Terror. Science fiction is often the arena of this debate between global optimism and pessimism.

Getting there

Mars requires less energy per unit mass (delta V) to reach from Earth than any planet except Venus. In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Using a Hohmann transfer orbit, a trip to Mars requires approximately nine months in space. In Astronautics and Aerospace engineering, the Hohmann transfer orbit is an Orbital maneuver using two engine impulses which under standard assumptions Modified transfer trajectories that cut the travel time down to seven or six months in space are possible with incrementally higher amounts of energy and fuel compared to a Hohmann transfer orbit, and are in standard use for robotic Mars missions. Shortening the travel time below about six months requires higher delta-v and an exponentially increasing amount of fuel, and is not feasible with chemical rockets, but could become feasible with advanced propulsion technologies not in current use, such as VASIMR^[2], and nuclear rockets, the latter of which could potentially cut the trip time down to about two weeks. In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to change the velocity of Spacecraft and artificial Satellites There are many different methods The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket ( VASIMR) is an electro-thermal thruster for Spacecraft propulsion. Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that use some form of Nuclear reaction as their primary power source ^[3]

Relative similarity to Earth

Space colonization

Mercury
Venus
Earth
- Moon
- Lagrange points
Mars
Ceres
Asteroids

Outer solar system

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While Earth is most like its inner neighbor Venus in bulk composition, Mars' similarities to Earth are arguably more compelling when considering colonization. Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, Space habitation, etc Mercury has been suggested as one possible target for Space colonization of the inner Solar system, along with Mars, Venus, the Moon The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of Spaceflight, and is still much discussed The colonization of the Moon is the proposed establishment of permanent human communities on the Moon. Lagrange Point Colonization is the colonization of the five equilibrium points in the orbit of a planet or moon its primary called Lagrange points The most obvious points for Ceres has been proposed as one possible target for human colonization in the inner Solar system. The Asteroids or more properly the Minor planets, have long been suggested as possible sites for human colonization Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization The colonization of Jupiter refers to having a permanent human presence on Jupiter Europa, the fourth-largest moon of the Gas giant Jupiter, is a subject in both Science fiction and scientific speculation for future human NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for H uman O uter P lanet E xploration regarding the future exploration of Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization Saturn’s orange moon Titan is one of several candidates for a possible future colonization of the outer planets in the solar system Advantages of Pluto Based on current theory Pluto is a potential dwarf planet to colonize because its surface is similar to the rock of Earth and Freeman Dyson has proposed that Trans-Neptunian Objects, rather than Planets are the major potential habitat of life in space A neighbourhood or neighborhood (see spelling differences) is a geographically localised Community within a larger City, Town or The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 These include:

The Martian day (or sol) is very close to Earth's. A Mars solar day is 24 hours 39 minutes 35. Solar times are measures of the apparent position of the Sun on the Celestial sphere. 244 seconds. (See timekeeping on Mars. Various schemes have been used or proposed to keep track of time and date on the planet Mars independently of Earth time and calendars )

Mars has a surface area that is 28. 4% of Earth's, only slightly less than the amount of dry land on Earth (which is 29. 2% of Earth's surface). Mars has half the radius of Earth and only one-tenth the mass, being less dense.

Mars has an axial tilt of 25. In Astronomy, axial tilt is the Inclination angle of a planet's rotational axis in relation to its orbital plane. 19°, compared with Earth's 23. 44°. As a result, Mars has seasons much like Earth, though they last nearly twice as long because the Martian year is about 1. A season is one of the major divisions of the Year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in Weather. 88 Earth years. The Martian north pole currently points at Cygnus, not Ursa Minor. Cygnus (ˈsɪgnəs Swan, Κύκνος) is a northern Constellation.

Mars has an atmosphere. While very thin (about 0. 7% of Earth's atmosphere), it provides some protection from solar and cosmic radiation and has been used successfully for aerobraking of spacecraft. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on Aerobraking is a Spaceflight maneuver that reduces the high point of an Elliptical orbit ( Apoapsis) by flying the vehicle through the Atmosphere

Recent observations by NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers and ESA's Mars Express confirm the presence of water on Mars. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program NASA 's Mars Exploration Rover ( MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of The European Space Agency ( ESA) established in 1975 is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 17 member Mars Express is a Space exploration mission being conducted by the European Space Agency (ESA Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Mars appears to have significant quantities of all the elements necessary to support Terran-based life. A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. [1]

Differences from Earth

The surface gravity on Mars is only a little more than one third that of Earth's. The surface gravity, g, of an astronomical or other object is the Gravitational acceleration experienced at its surface It is not known if this level is high enough to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness. Weightlessness is a phenomenon experienced by people during Free-fall.

Mars is much colder than Earth, with a mean surface temperature of -63°C and a low of -140°C. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale.

There are no standing bodies of liquid water on the surface of Mars.

Because Mars is farther from the Sun, the amount of solar energy reaching the upper atmosphere (the solar constant) is only about half of what reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere or the Moon's surface. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. However, the solar energy that reaches the surface of Mars is not impeded by a thick atmosphere like on Earth, so that solar energy at the surface of Earth or Mars is largely the same.

Mars' orbit is more eccentric than Earth's, exacerbating temperature and solar constant variations. In Astrodynamics, under standard assumptions, any Orbit must be of Conic section shape

The atmosphere on Mars, in its current condition, is too low for humans to survive without pressure suits. Since terraforming can not be expected as a near-term solution, habitable structures on Mars would need to be constructed with pressure vessels similar to spacecraft, capable of containing a pressure between a third and a whole bar. The terraforming of Mars is the hypothetical process by which the climate, surface and known properties of Mars would be deliberately changed with the goal of making A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a Pressure different from the ambient Pressure.

The Martian atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Because of this, even with the reduced atmospheric pressure, the partial pressure of CO₂ at the surface of Mars is some 52 times higher than on Earth, possibly allowing Mars to support some plant life. In a mixture of Ideal gases each gas has a partial pressure which is the pressure which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume

Mars has a very weak magnetosphere, so it deflects solar winds poorly. A magnetosphere' is a highly magnetized region around and possessed by an Astronomical object. The solar wind is a Stream of charged particles&mdasha plasma &mdashthat are ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun.

Habitability

Conditions on the surface of Mars are much closer to habitability than the surface of any other planet or moon, as seen by the extremely hot and cold temperatures on Mercury, the furnace-hot surface of Venus, or the cryogenic cold of the outer planets and their moons. The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Cryogenics is often used incorrectly to refer to Cryonics, cryopreserving humans or animals The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. Only the cloud tops of Venus are closer in terms of habitability to Earth than Mars is. ^[4] There are natural settings on Earth where humans have explored that match most conditions on Mars. The highest altitude reached by a manned balloon ascent, a record set in May, 1961, was 34,668 meters (113,740 feet). High altitude balloons are unmanned Balloons usually filled with Helium, that are released into the Upper atmosphere, generally reaching between 60000 [2] The pressure at that altitude is about the same as on the surface of Mars. [3] Extreme cold in the Arctic and Antarctic match all but the most extreme temperatures on Mars.

On March 21, 2007, in remarks at JPL's High-Tech Conference for Small Business, NASA Deputy Administrator Shana Dale said, "We also hope to discover if Mars can provide a second home for humans – an extension of our civilization – 40 million miles from Earth. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. "^[5]

Terraforming of Mars

An artist's conception of a terraformed Mars

Main article: Terraforming of Mars

Some groups have speculated that Mars might one day be transformed so as to allow a wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars' surface. The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its The terraforming of Mars is the hypothetical process by which the climate, surface and known properties of Mars would be deliberately changed with the goal of making ^[6] The practicality of terraforming is still unclear. The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its

Radiation

Mars has no global geomagnetic field comparable to Earth's. Earth 's magnetic field (and the surface magnetic field) is approximately a Magnetic dipole, with one pole near the North pole (see Combined with a thin atmosphere, this permits a significant amount of ionizing radiation to reach the Martian surface. Image talkNew_radiation_symbol_ISO_21482svg for details --> Ionizing radiation The Mars Odyssey spacecraft carried an instrument, the Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), to measure the dangers to humans. 2001 Mars Odyssey is a Robotic spacecraft Orbiting the planet Mars. The Martian Radiation Experiment, or MARIE was designed to measure the radiation environment of Mars using an energetic particle Spectrometer as part of MARIE found that radiation levels in orbit above Mars are 2. 5 times higher than at the International Space Station. Average doses were about 22 millirads per day (220 micrograys per day or 0. The rad is a largely obsolete unit of absorbed Radiation dose with symbol rad. The gray (symbol Gy is the SI unit of absorbed radiation dose. 8 gray per year). A three year exposure to such levels would be close to the safety limits currently adopted by NASA. Levels at the Martian surface would be somewhat lower and might vary significantly at different locations depending on altitude and local magnetic fields.

Occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce much higher doses. A Solar proton event occurs when Protons emitted by the Sun become accelerated to very high energies either close to the Sun during a Solar flare or in interplanetary Astronauts on Mars could be warned of SPEs by sensors closer to the Sun and presumably take shelter during these events. Some SPEs were observed by MARIE that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact SPEs are directional. This would imply that a network of spacecraft in orbit around the Sun might be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected.

Much remains to be learned about space radiation. In 2003, NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center opened a facility, the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory, at Brookhaven National Laboratory that employs particle accelerators to simulate space radiation. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. The Lyndon B Johnson Space Flight Center ( "JSFC") is the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 's center for Brookhaven National Laboratory ( BNL) is a United States national laboratory located in Upton New York on Long Island, and was formally established The facility will study its effects on living organisms along with shielding techniques. [4] There is some evidence that this kind of low level, chronic radiation is not quite as dangerous as once thought; and that radiation hormesis occurs. Radiation hormesis (also called Radiation homeostasis) is the Hypothesis that chronic low doses of Ionizing radiation are beneficial stimulating repair ^[7] The consensus among those that have studied the issues is that radiation levels, with the exception of the SPEs, that would be experienced on the surface of Mars, and whilst journeying there, are certainly a concern, but are not thought to prevent a trip from being made with current technology. ^[8]

Communication

Communications with Earth are relatively straightforward during the half-sol when the Earth is above the Martian horizon. NASA and ESA included communications relay equipment in several of the Mars orbiters, so Mars already has communications satellites. A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to comsat) is an artificial Satellite stationed in space for the purposes of Telecommunications. While these will eventually wear out, additional orbiters with communication relay capability are likely to be launched before any colonization expeditions are mounted.

The round trip communication delay due to the speed of light ranges from about 6. 5 minutes at closest approach to 44 minutes at superior conjunction. Telephone conversations or Internet Relay Chat between Earth and Mars would be highly impractical due to the long time lags involved. NASA has found that direct communication can be blocked for about two weeks every synodic period, around the time of superior conjunction when the Sun is directly between Mars and Earth. The orbital period is the time taken for a given object to make one complete Orbit about another object Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. [5] A satellite at either of the Earth-Sun L4/L5 Lagrange points could serve as a relay during this period to solve the problem, or even a constellation of communications satellites, which would be a minor expense in the context of a full-blown Mars colonization program.

Robotic precursors

The path to a human colony could be prepared by robotic systems such as the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity. A robotic spacecraft is a Spacecraft with no humans on board that is usually under Telerobotic control NASA 's Mars Exploration Rover ( MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of These systems could help locate resources, such as ground water or ice, that would help a colony grow and thrive. The lifetimes of these systems would be measured in years and even decades, and as recent developments in commercial spaceflight have shown, it may be that these systems will involve private as well as government ownership. Private spaceflight is flight above Earth Altitude conducted by and paid for by an entity other than a government These robotic systems also have a reduced cost compared with early crewed operations, and have less political risk.

Wired systems might lay the groundwork for early crewed landings and bases, by producing various consumables including fuel, oxidizers, water, and construction materials. Establishing power, communications, shelter, heating, and manufacturing basics can begin with robotic systems, if only as a prelude to crewed operations.

Early human missions

See also: Vision for Space Exploration

Early human missions to Mars, such as those being tentatively planned by NASA, ESA, and other national space agencies, would not be direct precursors to colonization. The Vision for Space Exploration is the United States space policy announced on January 14, 2004 by U The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program The European Space Agency ( ESA) established in 1975 is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 17 member They are intended solely as exploration missions, as the Apollo missions to the Moon were not planned to be sites of a permanent base.

Colonization requires the establishment of permanent bases that have potential for self-expansion. A famous proposal for building such bases is the Mars Direct plan, advocated by Robert Zubrin. Mars Direct is a proposal for a relatively low-cost manned mission to Mars with current rocket technology Robert Zubrin (born 19 April 1952) is an American Aerospace engineer and Author, best known for his Advocacy of manned Mars ^[9]. The Mars Society has established the Mars Analogue Research Station Programme at sites Devon Island in Canada and in Utah, USA, to experiment with different plans for human operations on Mars, based on Mars Direct. The Mars Society is an international Space advocacy Non-profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of Mars. The Mars Analogue Research Station (MARS Programme is an international effort spearheaded by The Mars Society to establish a network of prototype One of the larger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Devon Island is the second-largest of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, Nunavut, Canada The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States.

Economics

As with early colonies in the New World, economics would be a crucial aspect to a colony's success. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Whereas North American colonies established a trade in timber, furs, and other raw materials, early Mars colonies might be focused on developing local resources for their own consumption. British colonization of the Americas (including colonization under the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland before the 1707 Acts of Union created These resources would certainly include water and/or ice. In the longer term, the reduced gravity well of Mars versus that of the Earth may improve the economics of lifting materials from the surface. This reduced gravity together with Mars' rotation rate makes possible the construction of a space elevator with today's materials, although the low orbit of Phobos presents challenges. A space elevator is a proposed structure designed to transport Material from a celestial body 's Surface into space. In addition to the obstacle of making the economy self-supporting, another major economic problem is the enormous up-front investments required to establish the colony and perhaps also terraform the planet.

One of the main trade goods during early colonization would be manure. ^[10] Assuming that life doesn't exist on Mars, the soil is going to be very poor for growing plants, so manure and other fertilizers will be valued highly in any Martian civilization, until the planet changes enough chemically to support growing vegetation on its own. Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture. As an adjective the term "martian" is used to describe anything pertaining to the Planet Mars.

Solar power will possibly be the main power source for a Martian colony since solar output is about same on Earth. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Excess energy gathered in the day can be stored in batteries for back-up power and nightly use. However, a Martian colony needs large amounts of energy for heating the habitats and greenhouses, since temperatures are much lower compared to Earth. A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants are cultivated Small fission reactors could provide electric heating for the colony. Heating requirements could be lowered if the colonists use domes to trap solar heat.

Possible locations for colonies

Mars can be considered in broad regions for discussion of possible colony sites.

Polar regions

Mars' north and south poles once attracted great interest as colony sites because seasonally-varying polar ice caps have long been observed by telescope from Earth. Mars Odyssey found the largest concentration of water near the north pole, but also showed that water likely exists in lower latitudes as well, making the poles less compelling as a colony locale. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Like Earth, Mars sees a midnight sun at the poles during local summer and polar night during local winter. The midnight sun is a phenomenon occurring in Latitudes north and nearby to the south of the Arctic Circle and south and nearby to the north of the The polar night is the night lasting more than 24 hours usually inside the Polar circles The opposite phenomenon when the sun stays above the horizon for a long time is called

Equatorial regions

Mars Odyssey found natural caves near the volcano Arsia Mons. 2001 Mars Odyssey is a Robotic spacecraft Orbiting the planet Mars. Arsia Mons is the southernmost of three Volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the Equator of the Planet Yet, the size and shape of the caves are unknown. Scientists suspect water ice on the ground of the caves. Colonists could possibly benefit from both shelter from radiation and ice reservoirs. Geothermal energy is also suspected in the equatorial regions.

Midlands

Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity

The exploration of Mars' surface is still underway. Eagle Crater is the small Impact crater in which the Mars Exploration Rover ''Opportunity'' found itself after landing on Mars in MER-B ( Mars Exploration Rover - B) known as Opportunity, is the second of the two rovers of NASA 's Mars Exploration The two Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have encountered very different soil and rock characteristics. NASA 's Mars Exploration Rover ( MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of This suggests that the Martian landscape is quite varied and the ideal location for a colony would be better determined when more data becomes available. As on Earth, the further one goes from the equator, the greater the seasonal climate variation one encounters.

Valles Marineris

Valles Marineris, the "Grand Canyon" of Mars, is over 3,000 km long and averages 8 km deep. Valles Marineris ( Latin for Mariner Valleys, named after the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter The Grand Canyon Atmospheric pressure at the bottom would be some 25% higher than the surface average, 0. 9 kPa vs 0. 7 kPa. The canyon runs roughly east-west, so shadows from its walls should not interfere too badly with solar power collection. River channels lead to the canyon, indicating it was once flooded.

Concerns

Besides the general criticism of human colonization of space (see space colonization), there are specific concerns about a colony on Mars:

Mars has a gravity 0. Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, Space habitation, etc 38 times that of the earth and a density of the atmosphere of 1% that on earth. ^[11] The stronger gravity than the Moon and the presence of aerodynamic effects makes it more difficult to land heavy, crewed spacecraft with thrusters only, yet the atmosphere is also too thin to get very much use out of aerodynamic effects for braking and landing. Landing piloted missions on Mars will require a braking and landing system different from anything used to land crewed spacecraft on the Moon or robotic missions on Mars. ^[12]

The question of whether life once existed or exists now on Mars has not been settled, raising concerns about possible contamination of the planet with Earth life. See Life on Mars. Scientists have long speculated about the possibility of life on Mars owing to the planet's proximity and similarity to Earth.

Advocates of a return to the Moon say the Moon is a more logical first location for a first planetary colony, perhaps using it as a staging area for future manned missions to Mars. However, the moon has no atmosphere, no analogous geology and a much greater temperature range and rotational period. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit These differences make Mars more in common with Earth than the Moon. Antarctica or desert areas of Earth provide much better training grounds at vastly lesser cost. Also, the Moon has extreme poverty in several of the key elements required for life, most notably hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon (50 - 100 ppm), as well as the high delta-v required for takeoff and landing. ^[13]

It is unknown whether Martian gravity can support human life in the long term (all experience is at either ~1g or zero gravity). Space medicine researchers have theorized on whether the health benefits of gravity rise slowly or quickly between weightlessness and full Earth gravity. One theory is that sleeping chambers built inside centrifuges would minimize the health problems. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite experiment is due to become the first experiment testing the effects of partial gravity, artificially generated at 0. Mars Gravity Biosatellite project is a joint venture of MIT and the Georgia Institute of Technology to develop a free-flying spacecraft for un-crewed research flights 38 g to match Mars gravity, on mammal life, specifically on mice, throughout the life cycle from conception to death. g-force (also G-force, g-load) is a measurement of an object's Acceleration expressed in g s ^[14]

Mars' escape velocity is 5 km/s, which, though less than half that for Earth, is reasonably high compared to the Moon's 2. In Physics, escape velocity is the speed where the Kinetic energy of an object is equal to the magnitude of its Gravitational potential energy 38 km/s or the negligible escape velocity of most asteroids. ^[15] This could make physical export trade from Mars to other planets and habitats less viable economically.

There is likely to be little economic return from the colonisation of Mars whilst Lunar and Near Earth Asteroid industry is likely to be exporting to Earth^[16]