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Rendering of human brain
Rendering of human brain

Cognitive science is most simply defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence. The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS [1] It is an interdisciplinary study drawing from relevant fields including psychology, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, computer science, and biology. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of Artificial Intelligence research. Hugh Christopher Longuet-Higgins FRS was both a theoretical chemist and a cognitive scientist. The Lighthill report is the name commonly used for the paper "Artificial Intelligence A General Survey" by Professor Sir James Lighthill, published In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science[2] and the Cognitive Science Society began.

Contents

History

In Ancient Greece, philosophers Plato and Aristotle sought to understand the nature of human knowledge. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In the 17th century, Descartes popularized the notion that the body and the mind were two separate entities, known as Res Extensa and Res Cogitans. René Descartes used the res extensa and its opposite Res cogitans in his philosophical system called the Cartesian system René Descartes used the res extensa and its opposite Res cogitans in his philosophical system called the Cartesian system Other thinkers on the matter of the mind in the 17th and 18th centuries included George Berkeley, Robert Burton, Thomas Hobbes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and John Locke. George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher. Robert Burton may refer to Robert Burton Sr (21st century printing industry executive Robert Burton (athlete (born 1885 British Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. In the 1870s, Wilhelm Wundt moved the study of human knowledge into the realm of experimental psychology. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt ( August 16 1832 - August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor psychologist physiologist and professor Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. In the early 20th century, the popular notion of mind was altered by John B. Watson's behaviorist viewpoint that consciousness was not an appropriate question for scientific inquiry and that only observable behavior should be studied. John Broadus Watson ( January 9, 1878 &ndash September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological In the 1950s this prevailing viewpoint began to change again as scientists started conceptualizing theories of mind based on complex representations and computational procedures. George A. Miller pioneered the concept of mental representations, chunks of information that are encoded and decoded within the mind. George Armitage Miller, born February 3, 1920 in Charleston, West Virginia) is a professor of Psychology at Princeton University John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon founded the field of artificial intelligence around the same time. John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American Computer scientist and Cognitive Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of Artificial intelligence (AI co-founder Allen Newell ( March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in Computer science and Cognitive psychology at the Herbert Alexander Simon ( June 15, 1916 February 9, 2001) was an American Political scientist whose research ranged Noam Chomsky further removed the study of the mind from the behaviorism of Watson, B.F. Skinner, and others that had been psychology's primary focus. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( March 20, 1904 &ndash August 18 1990) was an influential American Psychologist, author The first international Round-Table on Abstract Intelligent Agent (AIA93) was held in Rome in 1993. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

Principles

Approaches

There are several approaches to the study of cognitive science. These approaches may be classified broadly as symbolic, connectionist, and dynamic systems.

Levels of analysis

One of the central principles of systemics applied in the symbolic approach to cognitive science is that (1) there are different Levels of Analysis (LOA) from which the brain and mind can be studied, and (2) mental phenomena are best studied from multiple levels of abstraction. Systemics is the emerging branch of Science that studies Holistic Systems It tries to develop logical mathematical engineering and philosophical paradigms For example, these levels are broken into three (not well separated) groups, based on Marr's description of them:

A simple analogy often used to describe LOA is to compare the brain to a computer. A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. The physical level would consist of the computer's CPU, the behavioral level represents the computer's output to a monitor or printer, and the functional level would be the computer's operating system, which allows the CPU and peripheral components to communicate. An operating system (commonly abbreviated OS and O/S) is the software component of a Computer system that is responsible for the management and coordination

A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. For example, consider the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. How does this process occur? One approach would be to study behavior through direct observation. A person could be presented with a phone number, asked to recall it after some delay. Then the accuracy of the response could be measured. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on their own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available, and it were known when each neuron was firing, it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is needed. This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior. For criticisms of this framework see Functionalism (psychology). Functionalism is a memory of a philosophical basis for much empirical research in Psychology and Cognitive science, which says that “ Mental states

Interdisciplinary nature

Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, anthropology, biology, and physics. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Cognitive science tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus it too has an objective, observer-independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with the physical sciences, and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Simulation is the imitation of some real thing state of affairs or process Scientific modelling is the process of generating abstract, conceptual, Graphical and or mathematical models. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed.

Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states are classified functionally, such that any system that performs the proper function for some mental state is considered to be in that mental state. Functionalism is a theory of the mind in contemporary Philosophy, developed largely as an alternative to both the Identity theory of mind and Behaviourism Thus, according to functionalism about the mind, even non-human systems, such as other animal species, alien life forms, or advanced computers can, in principle, have mental states. This perspective is one of the reasons the term "cognitive science" is not exactly coextensive with neuroscience, psychology, or some combination of the two. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and

From the external point of view, the largest interdisciplinary context of cognitive science is systemics. Systemics is the emerging branch of Science that studies Holistic Systems It tries to develop logical mathematical engineering and philosophical paradigms It includes the socio-cognitive extension of the cognition models and theories over different social environments social systems, with the emphasis on distributed cognition and intelligence. Socio-cognitive or sociocognitive describes integrated cognitive and Social properties of Systems Processes functions Distributed cognition is a theory of Psychology developed in the mid 1980s by Edwin Hutchins. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities

Cognitive science: the term

The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). "Lakoff" and "Professor Lakoff" redirect here Mark L Johnson (born 24 May 1949 in Kansas City Missouri) is Knight Professor of Liberal Arts and Sciences in the Department of Philosophy at the Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical. )

The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining "to the action or process of knowing". The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.

Scope

Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative and evolutionary approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophical conflicts. Animal cognition is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of (non-human Animals. Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Evolutionary psychology ( EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits such as Memory, Perception, Another important mind-related subject that cognitive sciences tend to avoid is the existence of qualia, with discussions over this issue being sometimes limited to only mentioning qualia as a philosophically-open matter [3]. " Qualia " (ˈkwɑːliə is "an unfamiliar term for something that could not be more familiar to each of us the ways things seem to us" Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them.

In any event, the essential questions of cognitive science seem to be: What is intelligence? and How is it possible to model it computationally?.

Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but is meant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various aspects of the field. Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of Mind or of intelligence (e

Artificial intelligence

Main article: Artificial intelligence

". . . One major contribution of AI and cognitive science to psychology has been the information processing model of human thinking in which the metaphor of brain-as-computer is taken quite literally. . " AAAI Web pages.

Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an (See the section on computational modeling in the Research Methods section. )

There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i. e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemas, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations. Connectionism is an approach in the fields of Artificial intelligence, Cognitive psychology / Cognitive science, Neuroscience and Philosophy One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.

Attention

Main article: Attention

Attention is the selection of important information. Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In Cognitive psychology, dichotic listening is a procedure commonly used to investigate Selective attention in the Auditory system. In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it.

Language processing

A well known example of a Phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically.
A well known example of a Phrase structure tree. " Colorless green ideas sleep furiously " is a sentence composed by Noam Chomsky in 1957 as an example of a sentence whose Grammar is correct Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's Syntax. This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically.
Main articles: Cognitive linguistics, Language, Linguistics, and Psycholinguistics

The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. In Linguistics and Cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation learning and usage A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable Humans to acquire use Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences they have never heard before?

The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonology and phonetics, syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific Writing system to write the language Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Pragmatics is the study of the ability of Natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction.

The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of. Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.

A very fecund way to approach cognitive issues in language is the pragmatics of language, that is, the current use of the language by a real speaker. Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to Reproduce. Pragmatics is the study of the ability of Natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated From a pragmatic analytical perspective it is possible to show that some people who have a profession in which they categorically work with language (e. g. journalists) have a behavior which is not predictable by known theories. The pragmatic approach is also useful in the study of collective distributed decision making, particularly in broadcasted systems (for instance aviation approach control - APP). Social choice theory studies voting rules that govern and describe how individual preferences are aggregated to form a collective preference

Learning and development

Main articles: Learning and Developmental psychology

Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place.

A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned. The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent This is often framed in terms of the nature versus nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. For nativism as a political force see Nativism. In the field of Psychology, nativism is the view that certain skills or abilities Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information might guide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker[4]) have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic. One hotly debated issue is whether the biological contribution includes capacities specific to language acquisition often referred to as Universal grammar. Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18 1954 is a prominent Canadian - American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, and author Published in 1996 by Jeffrey Elman, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Elizabeth Bates, Mark Johnson, Domenico Parisi and Kim Plunkett Rethinking Innateness They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific "facts" about how grammar works can only be learnt as a result of experience.

Memory

Main article: Memory

Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Memory is often thought of consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).

Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory--grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory--refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e. Declarative memory is the aspect of human Memory that stores Facts It is so called because it refers to memories that can be consciously discussed or declared Semantic memory refers to the Memory of meanings Understandings and other concept-based Knowledge unrelated to specific experiences Episodic memory is the Memory of unique personal experiences ( Events Times Places associated Emotions and other conception-based g. , Who was the first president of the U. S. A. ?, or "What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e. Procedural memory is the long-term Memory of Skills and procedures or "how to" knowledge ( Procedural knowledge) g. how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory .

Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus in more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in "fill-in-the-blank")?

Perception and action

The Necker cube, an example of a visual illusion.
The Necker cube, an example of a visual illusion.
Main article: Perception

Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process visual illusions. This article is about visual perception See Optical Illusion (Album for information about the Time Requiem album The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.

The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell. Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses

Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action.

Research methods

Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Systems theory is an Interdisciplinary field of Science and the study of the nature of Complex systems in Nature, Society, and

Behavioral experiments

In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed.

Brain imaging

Main article: Neuroimaging
Image of the human head with the brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
Image of the human head with the brain. Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus links the Nervous system to the Endocrine system via the Pituitary gland (hypophysis

Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates

Computational modeling

A Neural network with two layers.
A Neural network with two layers.

Computational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Computational modelling can help us to understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon. Understand is a commercial Static code analysis software tool produced by SciTools There are two basic approaches to the cognition modeling. The first is focused on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind and operates using symbols, and the second, which follows the neural and associative properties of the human brain, and is called subsymbolic.

All the above approaches tend to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence, in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making. Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives

Neurobiological methods

Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system.

Key findings

Cognitive science has much to its credit. Single-Cell Recording is a technique used in research to observe changes in voltage or current in a Neuron. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS is the application of weak electrical currents (1-2 mA to modulate the activity of Neurons in the brain An animal model is a non-human Animal that has a Disease or injury that is similar to a human condition Postmortem studies are a Neurobiological research method in which the brain of a patient usually the subject of a Longitudinal study, with some sort of phenomenological Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. For an article about the conceptual problems of the mind see Cognitive closure (philosophy. Risk is a Concept that denotes the precise probability of specific eventualities Behavioral economics and behavioral finance are closely related fields which apply scientific research on human and social cognitive and emotional factors to better Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics, and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. Persuasion is a form of Social influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea attitude or action by rational and symbolic (though not always Coercion (co-er-shion is the practice of compelling a person or manipulating them to behave in an involuntary way (whether through action or inaction by use of threats It has made its presence firmly known in the philosophy of language and epistemology - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields

Criticisms

The philosophical underpinnings of research in cognitive science have been continually criticized by philosophers and scientists alike. See Functionalism (philosophy of mind) for an extended entry on this. Functionalism is a theory of the mind in contemporary Philosophy, developed largely as an alternative to both the Identity theory of mind and Behaviourism

Notable researchers

See also: List of cognitive scientists

Some of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited. Below are some notable researchers in Cognitive science. Computer science Rodney Brooks Douglas Hofstadter Within philosophy familiar names include Daniel Dennett who writes from a computational systems perspective, John Searle known for his controversial Chinese Room, Jerry Fodor who advocates functionalism, and Douglas Hofstadter. Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28 1942 in Boston, Massachusetts) is a prominent American philosopher whose research John Rogers Searle (born July 31 1932 in Denver Colorado) is an American Philosopher and the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University Philosophy of artificial intelligence The Chinese Room argument comprises a Thought experiment and associated Arguments by John Searle, who attempts Functionalism is a memory of a philosophical basis for much empirical research in Psychology and Cognitive science, which says that “ Mental states Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15 1945 in New York New York) is an American academic whose research focuses on consciousness thinking and creativity Hofstadter, famous for writing Gödel, Escher, Bach, which questions the nature of words and thought, is Director of the Fluid Analogies Research Group of the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition at Indiana University. Douglas Richard Hofstadter (born February 15 1945 in New York New York) is an American academic whose research focuses on consciousness thinking and creativity Gödel Escher Bach an Eternal Golden Braid (commonly GEB) is a Pulitzer Prize -winning book by Douglas Hofstadter, described Indiana University is the flagship campus of the Indiana University system. In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political "Lakoff" and "Professor Lakoff" redirect here In Artificial intelligence Marvin Minsky and Kevin Warwick are prominent. Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of Artificial intelligence (AI co-founder Kevin Warwick (born 9 February 1954 Coventry, UK is a British scientist and professor of Cybernetics at the University of Reading Popular names in the discipline of psychology include James McClelland and Steven Pinker. James L (Jay McClelland (born December 1, 1948) is a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University. Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18 1954 is a prominent Canadian - American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, and author

See also

References

  1. ^ Luger, George (1994). The cognitive science of mathematics is the study of mathematical ideas (concepts using the techniques of Cognitive science. The Cognitive Science of Religion is the study of religious thought and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive sciences For an article about the conceptual problems of the mind see Cognitive closure (philosophy. In Linguistics and Cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation learning and usage Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of Neuropsychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the Brain relates to specific psychological Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Computational neuroscience is an interdisciplinary science that links the diverse fields of Neuroscience, Cognitive science, Electrical engineering, Decision theory in Mathematics and Statistics is concerned with identifying the Values uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given Decision Field Theory (DFT is a Computational model of Decision making, that models deliberation as a Diffusion process. Educational psychology is the study of how Humans learn in Educational settings the effectiveness of educational interventions the psychology of teaching and the Heterophenomenology (" Phenomenology of another not oneself" is a term coined by Daniel Dennett to describe an explicitly third-person scientific The Human Cognome Project seeks to reverse engineer the Human brain, paralleling in many ways the Human Genome Project and its success in deciphering the The Indiana Archives of Cognitive Science (IACS is an Online Information portal providing information about the field of Cognitive science. Informatics is the science of Information, the practice of Information processing, and the engineering of Information systems. For approaches to Cognitive science that emphasize the Embodied mind see Embodied mind thesis Embodied Cognitive Science Embodiment Philosophers cognitive scientists and artificial intelligence researchers who study embodied cognition and the embodied mind argue Enactivism is a theoretical approach to understanding the mind proposed by Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana, Francisco Varela, Eleanor Rosch Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Anatomy Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon Below are some notable researchers in Cognitive science. Computer science Rodney Brooks Douglas Hofstadter The following institutions grant degrees in cognitive science: Canada University of British Columbia, Vancouver Department of Cognitive Systems ( B Neural Darwinism, a large scale theory of brain function by Gerald Edelman, was initially published in 1978 in a book called The Mindful Brain (MIT Press Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system Notational bias is a form of Cultural bias that is incurred when the available Notation to describe something introduces a bias in the Human ability to Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and strong AI Artificial consciousness (AC also known as machine consciousness (MC or synthetic consciousness, is a field related to Artificial intelligence Situated cognition describes a perspective of human cognition that asserts learning happens as human beings interact with the living world The Society of Mind is a book and theory of natural intelligence as written and developed by Marvin Minsky. Concept mining is a discipline at the nexus of Data mining, Text mining, and Linguistics, drawing on Artificial intelligence and Statistics Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Cognitive science : the science of intelligent systems. San Diego: Academic Press. Academic Press ( London, New York and San Diego) was an Academic Book Publisher that is now part of Elsevier. ISBN 978-0124595705.  
  2. ^ Cognitive Science Journal
  3. ^ A number of authors consider the qualia problem to be part of the cog sci field, e. g. Some philosophical issues in cognitive science: qualia, intentionality, and the mind-body problem, Qualia: The Hard Problem, and indeed the entire discipline of philosophy as being part of the cog sci field, e. g. What is Cognitive Science?, while other reputable sources that cover both qualia and cog sci do not draw any obvious connection between them, e. g. the Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Jan 2008 online edition) does have full-size articles on both qualia and cog sci, but qualia are not even mentioned in the cog sci article while cog sci is not mentioned in the qualia article
  4. ^ Pinker S. , Bloom P. (1990). "Natural language and natural selection". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13 (4): 707-784.  
  1. Baumgartner, P. , et al. Eds. (1995). Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  2. Bechtel, W. et al. Ed. (1999). A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
  3. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New York: Grosset/Putnam.
  4. Gardner, H. (1985). The Mind's New Science. New York: Basic Books.
  5. Gazzaniga, M. S. Ed. (1996). Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences. New York: The MIT Press.
  6. Hunt, M. (1982). The Universe Within: A New Science Explores the Human Mind. Brighton: The Harvester Press.
  7. Lakoff, G and Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy In The Flesh. New York: Basic Books.
  8. Port, Robert F. and vanGelder, Tim (1995). Mind as Motion: Explorations in the Dynamics of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 0262161508 .
  9. Sun, Ron & L. Bookman, (eds. ), Computational Architectures Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994.
  10. Thagard, P. (2nd, 2005). Mind : Introduction to Cognitive Science. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
  11. Thelen, Esther and Smith, Linda B. (1996). A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 026270059X .

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cognitive science

-noun

  1. The multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior.
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