Cognitive psychology is a school of thought in psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. Neuropsychology is the applied scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the Brain related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors A brain-computer interface (BCI sometimes called a direct neural interface or a brain-machine interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal Traumatic brain injury (TBI also called intracranial injury, occurs when Physical trauma injures the Brain. Anatomical regions of the brain are listed vertically following hierarchies that are standard in Neuroanatomy. Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical Psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with Brain injury or Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrate underlying Cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Neuroanatomy is the science for localizing function in the Human brain. Neurophysiology (from Greek grc νεῦρον neuron, "nerve" grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν phrēn, "mind" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" is a defunct field of study once The human brain controls the Central nervous system (CNS by way of the Cranial nerves and Spinal cord, the Peripheral nervous system (PNS Wikipedia articles related to Brain Function Visual system Auditory system Olfactory system Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives The executive system is a theorized Cognitive system in Psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes In the Philosophy of language, a natural language (or ordinary language) is a Language that is spoken or written in phonemic-alphabetic or phonemically-related In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information Gross motor coordination addresses the Gross motor skills walking running climbing jumping crawling lifting one's head sitting up etc In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Phineas P Gage (July 9? 1823 – May 21? 1860 was a railroad worker now remembered for his incredible survival of a Traumatic brain injury which destroyed one or both of Norman Geschwind (1926-1984 can be considered the father of modern Behavioral neurology in America Elkhonon Goldberg (b 1946 Riga, Latvia) is a Neuropsychologist and Cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization Donald Olding Hebb ( July 22, 1904 &ndash August 20, 1985) was a Canadian Psychologist who was influential in the area of Neuropsychology Kenneth M Heilman is an American Behavioral neurologist. Biography Early life and career Kenneth Heilman was born and raised in Brooklyn Muriel Deutsch Lezak is an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field Benjamin Libet ( April 12, 1916 - July 23, 2007) was a researcher in the Physiology department of the University of California Rodolfo R Llinás (b Bogotá, Colombia in 1934 is the Thomas and Suzanne Murphy Professor of Neuroscience and Chairman of the department of Physiology & Neuroscience Alexander Romanovich Luria Александр Романович Лурия ( July 16, 1902 - August 14, 1977) was a famous Soviet Dr Brenda Milner CC FRS (born 15 July 1918, Manchester England) has contributed extensively to the research literature Karl H Pribram (born February 25, 1919 in Vienna Austria) is a professor at Georgetown University and George Mason University Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE (born July 9, 1933, London is a British Neurologist residing in the United States who has written popular books about Roger Wolcott Sperry ( August 20, 1913 – April 17, 1994) was a neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and Nobel laureate who KC (Also known as Patient KC) is a famous patient in Neuropsychology who suffers from Anterograde amnesia and temporally graded Retrograde amnesia Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular Brain structure or pathway The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, or simply the Bender-Gestalt test, is a Psychological test first developed by child Neuropsychiatrist Lauretta The Benton Visual Retention Test (or simply Benton Test) is an individually administered test for ages 8-adult that measures Visual perception and Visual memory The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of Symptoms of Dementia (i A Continuous Performance Task/Test, or CPT, is a Psychological test which measures a person's sustained and selective Attention and impulsivity The Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS, sometimes also known as the Glasgow Coma Score is a neurological scale which aims to give a reliable objective The Hayling and Brixton tests are Neuropsychological tests of Executive function created by psychologists Paul W The lexical decision task is a procedure used in many Psychology and Psycholinguistics experiments The mini-mental state examination ( MMSE) or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to assess Cognition. Demonstration Say aloud the colors of each of these words as fast Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS is a general test of intelligence ( IQ) published in February 1955 as a revision of the Wechsler - Bellevue test The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST is a Neuropsychological test of "set-shifting" i A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the United States used to help people better understand It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who provided a theory of stages/phases that describe children's cognitive development. Gestalt psychology (also Gestalt of the Berlin School) is a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is holistic Max Wertheimer (April 15 1880 – October 12 1943 was a Czech -born Jewish teacher who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, Kurt Koffka ( Berlin, March 18, 1886 - Northampton, November 22, 1941) was born and educated in Berlin and earned Jean Piaget pjaʒɛ ( August 9, 1896 &ndash September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristics—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation heuristic (hyu̇-ˈris-tik is a method to help solve a problem commonly an informal method In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.
Contents |
History
Ulric Neisser coined the term 'cognitive psychology' in his book published in 1967 (Cognitive Psychology), wherein Neisser provides a definition of cognitive psychology characterizing people as dynamic information-processing systems whose mental operations might be described in computational terms. Ulric Neisser (born 8 December 1928) is an American Psychologist and member of the National Academy of Sciences. Also emphasising that it is a point of view which postulates the mind as having a certain conceptual structure. Neisser's point of view endows the discipline a scope which expands beyond high-level concepts such as "reasoning", often espoused in other works as a definition of cognitive psychology. Neisser's definition of cognition illustrates this well:
. . . the term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations. . . Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every [1] psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view. Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts.
Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in two key ways.
- It accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychology. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of Conscious inner Thoughts desires and Sensations It is a conscious mental and usually Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded
- It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire and motivation) unlike behaviorist psychology. Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true Preference (also called " taste " or "penchant" is a concept used in the Social sciences particularly Economics. Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the
The school of thought arising from this approach is known as cognitivism. In Psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood by quantitative, positivist
Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research, having only developed as a separate area within the discipline since the late 1950s and early 1960s (though there are examples of cognitive thinking from earlier researchers). The cognitive approach was brought to prominence by Donald Broadbent's book Perception and Communication in 1958. Donald Eric Broadbent ( Birmingham, 1926 - April 10 1993) was an influential English experimental psychologist. Since that time, the dominant paradigm in the area has been the information processing model of cognition that Broadbent put forward. The word paradigm ( Greek:παράδειγμα (paradigmacomposite from para- and the verb δείχνυμι "to show" as a whole -roughly- meaning "example" Information processing is the change (processing of Information in any manner detectable by an observer. This is a way of thinking and reasoning about mental processes, envisioning them as software running on the computer that is the brain. Theories refer to forms of input, representation, computation or processing, and outputs. Applied to language as the primary mental knowledge representation system, cognitive psychology has exploited tree and network mental models. Its singular contribution to AI and psychology in general is the notion of a semantic network. A Semantic network is a network which represents Semantic relations between the Concepts This is often used as a form of Knowledge representation One of the first cognitive psychologists, George Miller is well-known for dedicating his career to the development of WordNet, a semantic network for the English language. George Armitage Miller, born February 3, 1920 in Charleston, West Virginia) is a professor of Psychology at Princeton University WordNet is a Semantic lexicon for the English language. It groups English words into sets of synonyms called Synsets, provides short general Development began in 1985 and is now the foundation for many machine ontologies.
This way of conceiving mental processes has pervaded psychology more generally over the past few decades, and it is not uncommon to find cognitive theories within social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, and developmental psychology; the application of cognitive theories to comparative psychology has driven many recent studies in animal cognition. Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Abnormal psychology is the interpretive and scientific study of abnormal thoughts and behavior in order to understand and correct abnormal patterns of functioning Psychologists and scientists do not always agree on what should be considered Comparative Psychology. Animal cognition is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of (non-human Animals.
The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches in psychology, such as dynamical systems, and the embodiment perspective. Dynamical systems theory is an area of Applied mathematics used to describe the behavior of complex Dynamical systems usually by employing Differential Embodiment Philosophers cognitive scientists and artificial intelligence researchers who study embodied cognition and the embodied mind argue
Because of the use of computational metaphors and terminology, cognitive psychology was able to benefit greatly from the flourishing of research in artificial intelligence and other related areas in the 1960s and 1970s. In fact, it developed as one of the significant aspects of the inter-disciplinary subject of cognitive science, which attempts to integrate a range of approaches in research on the mind and mental processes. Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior
Major research areas in cognitive psychology
- General perception
- Psychophysics
- Attention and Filter theories (the ability to focus mental effort on specific stimuli whilst excluding other stimuli from consideration)
- Pattern recognition (the ability to correctly interpret ambiguous sensory information)
- Object recognition
- Time sensation (awareness and estimation of the passage of time)
- Category induction and acquisition
- Categorical judgement and classification
- Category representation and structure
- Similarity (psychology)
- Aging and memory
- Autobiographical memory
- Constructive memory
- Emotion and memory
- Episodic memory
- Eyewitness memory
- False memories
- Flashbulb memory
- List of memory biases
- Long-term memory
- Semantic memory
- Short-term memory
- Spaced repetition
- Source monitoring
- Working memory
- Mental imagery
- Propositional encoding
- Imagery versus proposition debate
- Dual-coding theories
- Mental models
- Choice (see also: Choice theory)
- Concept formation
- Decision making
- Judgment and decision making
- Logic, formal and natural reasoning
- Problem solving
Influential cognitive psychologists
- Daniel Kahneman
- Elizabeth Loftus
- James McClelland
- George Armitage Miller
- Ulrich Neisser
- Allen Newell
- Allan Paivio
- Seymour Papert
- Jean Piaget
- Steven Pinker
- Michael Posner
- Henry L. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things Pattern recognition is a sub-topic of Machine learning. It is "the act of taking in raw data and taking an action based on the category of the data" Although the sense of time is not associated with a specific sensory system the work of Psychologists and Neuroscientists indicates that our brains do have a system Categorization is the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated and understood. Concept learning, also known as Category learning and concept attainment is largely based on the works of the cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner. Cognitive Psychological Approaches to Similarity Similarity refers to the psychological nearness or proximity of two mental representations In Psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store retain and subsequently retrieve information One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of Memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. An autobiographical memory is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts Confabulation, also known as false memory is the confusion of Imagination with Memory, and/or the confusion of true memories with false memories Emotion can have a powerful impact on Memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events which Episodic memory is the Memory of unique personal experiences ( Events Times Places associated Emotions and other conception-based Eyewitness memory refers to the Episodic memory of specific event often a Crime. Confabulation, also known as false memory is the confusion of Imagination with Memory, and/or the confusion of true memories with false memories A flashbulb memory is a memory that was laid down in great detail during a personally significant event often a shocking event of national or international importance In Psychology and Cognitive science, a memory bias is a Cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a Memory (either the chances Long-term memory ( LTM) is Memory that can last as little as a few days or as long as decades Semantic memory refers to the Memory of meanings Understandings and other concept-based Knowledge unrelated to specific experiences Short-term memory, sometimes referred to as "primary" "working" or "active" Memory, is said to hold a small amount of information for about 20 Spaced repetition is a Learning technique in which increasing intervals of time are used between subsequent reviews Working memory (also referred to as Short term memory, depending on the specific theory is a theoretical construct within Cognitive psychology that refers to the Knowledge representation is an area in Artificial intelligence that is concerned with how to formally "think" that is how to use a symbol system to represent A mental image is an experience that significantly resembles the experience of perceiving some object event or scene but that occurs when the relevant object event or scene is not Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition was first advanced by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario. A mental model is an explanation in someone's Thought process for how something works in the real world Numerical cognition is a subdiscipline of Cognitive science that studies the cognitive developmental and neural bases of Numbers and Mathematics. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning One hotly debated issue is whether the biological contribution includes capacities specific to language acquisition often referred to as Universal grammar. Thought and thinking are mental forms and Processes respectively ("thought" is both Choice consists of the mental process of Thinking involved with the process of judging the merits of multiple options and selecting This article is about choice theory in psychology For choice theory in economics see Rational choice theory. Concept learning, also known as Category learning and concept attainment is largely based on the works of the cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner. Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions problem solving has been defined as higher-order Cognitive John Robert Anderson may refer to John Robert Anderson (psychologist John Robert Anderson (chemist John R Alan Baddeley FRS, CBE is professor of Psychology at the University of York. Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925 in Mundare, Alberta, Canada) is a Canadian Psychologist specializing Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886-1969 was a British Psychologist and Professor of Experimental psychology at the University of Cambridge Aaron Temkin Beck (born July 18 1921 is an American psychiatrist and a Professor emeritus at the department of Psychiatry at the University Dr Maggie Boden OBE, (b 26th November 1936 is a combinative researcher in the fields of Artificial Intelligence, Psychology, Philosophy, Donald Eric Broadbent ( Birmingham, 1926 - April 10 1993) was an influential English experimental psychologist. Jerome Seymour Bruner (born 1 October, 1915) is an American Psychologist who has contributed to Cognitive psychology and Cognitive Fergus Craik (born April 17, 1935, Edinburgh, Scotland) is a cognitive psychologist known for his groundbreaking research on levels Kenneth Craik (1914-1945 was a Philosopher and Psychologist who studied philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and received his Hermann Ebbinghaus ( January 24, 1850 – February 26, 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study Albert Ellis ( September 27 1913 &ndash July 24 2007) was an American Psychologist who in 1955 developed Rational Emotive William Kaye Estes (born June 17, 1919 in Minneapolis, Minnesota) is an American scientist Keith J Holyoak is a leading researcher in Cognitive psychology and Cognitive science, working on human thinking and reasoning. Marcia K Johnson is Dilley Professor of Psychology at Yale University. Philip Johnson-Laird ( 12 October 1936 -) is a professor at Princeton University 's Department of Psychology and author of several notable Daniel Kahneman (דניאל כהנמן (born 5 March 1934 is an Israeli American psychologist and Nobel laureate, notable for his work on Elizabeth F Loftus (born 1944 is an American Psychologist and expert on human Memory. James L (Jay McClelland (born December 1, 1948) is a Professor of Psychology at Stanford University. George Armitage Miller, born February 3, 1920 in Charleston, West Virginia) is a professor of Psychology at Princeton University Ulric Neisser (born 8 December 1928) is an American Psychologist and member of the National Academy of Sciences. Allen Newell ( March 19, 1927 - July 19, 1992) was a researcher in Computer science and Cognitive psychology at the Allan Paivio is an emeritus professor of psychology at the University of Western Ontario Seymour Papert (born February 29, 1928 in Pretoria South Africa) is an MIT Mathematician, computer scientist, and Jean Piaget pjaʒɛ ( August 9, 1896 &ndash September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural scientist Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18 1954 is a prominent Canadian - American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, and author Michael I Posner (born September 12, 1936) is the editor of numerous cognitive and Neuroscience compilations and is an eminent researcher in Roediger III
- Eleanor Rosch
- David Rumelhart
- Daniel Schacter
- Roger Shepard
- Herbert Simon
- Elizabeth Spelke
- George Sperling
- Saul Sternberg
- Larry Squire
- Endel Tulving
- Anne Treisman
- Ken Nakayama
- Amos Tversky
- Lev Vygotsky
References
See also
- Animal cognition
- Cognition
- Cognitive bias
- Cognitive description
- Cognitive Interventions
- Cognitive module
- Cognitive neuropsychology
- Cognitive neuroscience
- Cognitive poetics
- Cognitive robotics
- Cognitive science
- Cognitivism
- Connectionism
- Discursive psychology
- Ecological psychology
- Evolutionary psychology
- Intelligent system
- Logical fallacy
- Neurocognitive
- Neuropsychology
- Situated cognition
- Political psychology
- Psycholinguistics
- Psychological adaptation
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