In biology, co-evolution is the mutual evolutionary influence between two species. Biological interactions result from the fact that Organisms in an Ecosystem interact with each other in the natural world no organism is an autonomous entity isolated eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Each party in a co-evolutionary relationship exerts selective pressures on the other, thereby affecting each others' evolution. In the context of Evolution, certain traits or Alleles of a Species may be subject to selection Co-evolution includes the evolution of a host species and its parasites, and examples of mutualism evolving through time. In Biology, a host is an organism that harbors a Virus or Parasite, or a mutual or Commensal Symbiont, typically providing nourishment Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased Evolution in response to abiotic factors, such as climate change, is not coevolution (since climate is not alive and does not undergo biological evolution). Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Evolution in a one-on-one interaction, such as that between predator and prey, host-symbiont or host-parasitic pair, is coevolution. But many cases are less clearcut: a species may evolve in response to a number of other species, each of which is also evolving in response to a set of species. This situation has been referred to as "diffuse coevolution". And, certainly, for many organisms, the biotic (living) environment is the most prominent selective pressure, resulting in evolutionary change.
Examples of co-evolution include pollination of Angraecoid orchids by African moths. Pollination in angiosperms and Gymnosperms is the process that transfers pollen grains, which contain the male Gametes (sperm to where the female A moth is an Insect closely related to the Butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. These species co-evolve because the moths are dependent on the flowers for nectar and the flowers are dependent on the moths to spread their pollen so they can reproduce. Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced The evolutionary process has led to deep flowers and moths with long probosci.
Co-evolution also occurs between predator and prey species as in the case of the Rough-skinned Newt (Taricha granulosa) and the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). The rough-skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa) is a North American Newt known for its strong poison A garter snake is any Species of North American Snake within the Genus Thamnophis. In this case, the newts produce a potent nerve toxin that concentrates in their skin. A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low Garter snakes have evolved resistance to this toxin through a set of genetic mutations, and prey upon the newts. In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism The relationship between these animals has resulted in an evolutionary arms race that has driven toxin levels in the newt to extreme levels. In Evolutionary biology, an evolutionary arms race is an Evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co-evolving Genes that develop adaptations Coevolution processes were modeling by Leigh Van Valen as the theory of the Red Queen. Professor Leigh M Van Valen (born 1935) is an American evolutionary biologist. The Red Queen's Hypothesis, Red Queen, " Red Queen's race " or " Red Queen Effect " is an Evolutionary Hypothesis Emphasizing the importance of the sexual conflict, Thierry Lodé[1] privilegied the role of antagonist interactions (notably sexual) in evolution leading to an antagonist coevolution. Sexual conflict occurs when the two Sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning Reproduction, leading to Evolutionary arms race Born in 1956 Thierry Lodé is a French biologist professor teaching Evolutionary ecology in the CNRS Units ETHOS (Ethology Evolution Ecology of Rennes1, France
Co-evolution does not imply mutual dependence. The host of a parasite, or prey of a predator, does not depend on its enemy for survival.
The existence of mitochondria within eukaryote cells is an example of co-evolution as the mitochondria has a different DNA sequence than that of the nucleus in the host cell. In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex This concept is described further by the Endosymbiotic theory. The endosymbiotic theory concerns the origins of mitochondria and Plastids (e
Co-evolutionary algorithms are also a class of algorithms used for generating artificial life as well as for optimization, game learning and machine learning. Artificial life (commonly Alife or alife) is a field of study and an associated art form which examine Systems related to Life, its processes Machine learning is a subfield of Artificial intelligence that is concerned with the design and development of Algorithms and techniques that allow computers to "learn" Pioneering results in the use of co-evolutionary methods were by Daniel Hillis (who co-evolved sorting networks) and Karl Sims (who co-evolved virtual creatures). William Daniel "Danny" Hillis (born September 25, 1956, in Baltimore, Maryland) is an American Inventor, Karl Sims is a Computer graphics artist and researcher who is most well known for using Particle systems and Artificial life in computer animation
In his book The Self-organizing Universe, Erich Jantsch attributed the entire evolution of the cosmos to co-evolution. Erich Jantsch (1929&ndash1980 was an Austrian Astrophysicist who wrote the book The Self-Organizing Universe Scientific and Human Implications of the In its most general sense a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system
In astronomy, an emerging theory states that black holes and galaxies develop in an interdependent way analogous to biological co-evolution. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study A black hole is a theoretical region of space in which the Gravitational field is so powerful that nothing not even Electromagnetic radiation (e A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter [1]
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Specific examples
Hummingbirds and ornithophilous flowers
Hummingbirds and ornithophilous flowers have evolved to form a mutualistic relationship. Hummingbirds are Birds in the family Trochilidae, and are endemic to the Americas. Biologists that study Plant morphology use a number of different terms to describe plant organs and parts that can be observed with the human eye using no more than a hand held magnifying It is prevalent in the bird’s biology as well as in the flower’s. Hummingbird flowers have nectar chemistry associated with the bird’s diet. Their color and morphology also coincide with the bird’s vision and morphology. The blooming times of these ornithophilous flowers have also been found to coincide with hummingbirds' breeding seasons.
Flowers have converged to take advantage of similar birds (Brown et. al, 1979). Flowers compete for pollinators and adaptations reduce deleterious effects of this competition (Brown et al 1979). Bird-pollinated flowers usually show higher nectar volumes and sugar production (Stiles 1981). This reflects high energy requirements of the birds (Stiles 1981). Energetic criteria are the most important determinants of flower choice by birds (Stiles 1981). Following their respective breeding seasons, several species of hummingbirds co-occur in North America, and several hummingbird flowers bloom simultaneously in these habitats. These flowers seem to have converged to a common morphology and color (Stiles 1981). Different lengths and curvatures of the corolla tubes can affect the efficiency of extraction in hummingbird species in relation to differences in bill morphology (Stiles 1981). Tubular flowers force a bird to orient its bill in a particular way when probing the flower, especially when the bill and corolla are both curved; this also allows the plant to place pollen on a certain part of the bird’s body (Stiles 1981). This opens the door for a variety of morphological co-adaptations.
An important requisite for attraction is conspicuousness to birds, which reflects the properties of avian vision and habitat features (Stiles 1981). Birds have their greatest spectral sensitivity and finest hue discrimination at the long wavelength end of the visual spectrum (Stiles 1981). This is why red is so conspicuous to birds. Hummingbirds may also be able to see ultraviolet “colors” (Stiles 1981). The prevalence of ultraviolet patterns and nectar guides in nectar-poor entomophilous flowers allows the bird to avoid these flowers on sight (Stiles 1981). Two subfamilies in the family Trochilidae are Phaethorninae and Trochlinae. Each of these groups has evolved in conjunction with a particular set of flowers. Most Phaethorninae species are associated with large monocotyledonous herbs, and members of the subfamily Trochilinae are associated with dicotyledonous plant species (Stiles 1981).
Bibliography
- Michael Pollan The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World. The Botany of Desire A Plant's-Eye View of the World is a 2001 Nonfiction book by journalist Michael Pollan. Bloomsbury. ISBN 0-7475-6300-4. Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans
- Dawkins, R. Unweaving the Rainbow and other books. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born 26 March 1941 is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and Popular science Unweaving the Rainbow (subtitled "Science Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder" is a 1998 book by Richard Dawkins, discussing the relationship between
- Geffeney, Shana L. , et al. “Evolutionary diversification of TTX-resistant sodium channels in a predator-prey interaction”. Nature 434 (2005): 759–763. Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869
- Brown, James. , Brown, Astrid. 1979. Convergence, Competition, and Mimicry in a Temperate Community of Hummingbird Pollinated Flowers. Ecology 60:1022-1035
- Stiles, Gary. 1981. Geographical Aspects of Bird Flower Coevolution, with Particular Reference to Central America. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 68:323-351.
- Thierry Lodé "La guerre des sexes chez les animaux, une histoire naturelle de la sexualité. Born in 1956 Thierry Lodé is a French biologist professor teaching Evolutionary ecology in the CNRS Units ETHOS (Ethology Evolution Ecology of Rennes1, France 2006, Eds Odile Jacob,Paris ISBN 2-7381-1901-8
See also
Further reading
- Futuyma, D. J. and M. The Bak-Sneppen model is a simple model of Co-evolution between interacting Species. Character displacement refers to the phenomenon where differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated in regions where the species co-occur In Biology, co-adaptation, or coadaptation refers to the mutual adaptation of Species: see Mutualism, Symbiosis Coextinction of a Species is the loss of one species upon the Extinction of another Sexual conflict occurs when the two Sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning Reproduction, leading to Evolutionary arms race Lynn Margulis (born March 5, 1938) is an American Biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences Douglas Joel Futuyma (born 1942 New York City) is an American biologist. Slatkin (editors) (1983). Coevolution. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 555 pp. ISBN 0878932283.
- Thompson, J. N. (1994). The Coevolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 376 pp. ISBN 0226797597.
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