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The Clovis culture (sometimes referred to as the Llano culture[1]) is a prehistoric Paleoindian culture that first appears in the archaeological record of North America around 11,500 rcbp radiocarbon years ago, at the end of the last glacial period. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of "Last glacial" redirects here For the period of maximum glacier extent during this time see Last Glacial Maximum The last glacial period Archaeologists' best guess at present suggests this is equal to roughly 13,000 calendar years ago. The Clovis culture is thought to have lasted from between 200 and 800 years, depending on the source consulted, with an average estimate of around 500 years, starting about 13,000 years ago. The Clovis culture was replaced by several more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. The Younger Dryas Stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze, was a brief (approximately Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland point, and Redstone. The Folsom Complex is a name given by Archaeologists to a specific Paleo-Indian Archaeological culture that occupied much of central North America Cumberland is one of the 39 Historic counties of England. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 (excluding Carlisle from 1915 and now forms part of Each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Although this is generally held to be the result of normal cultural change through time,[2] numerous other reasons have been suggested to be the driving force for the observed changes in the archaeological record, such as an extraterrestrial impact event or post-glacial climate change with numerous extinctions.

The Clovis people, one of the several distinct Paleoindian groups mentioned above, were regarded as the first human inhabitants of the New World since the discovery of several Clovis sites in western North America in the 1930s. Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans were the ancient peoples of the Americas who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Clovis people were thought to be the ancestors of all the indigenous cultures of North and South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a However, this view has been contested over the last thirty years by several archaeological discoveries, including sites like Cactus Hill in Virginia, Paisley Caves in the Summer Lake Basin of Oregon, Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, and Monte Verde, Chile. Cactus Hill is an archaeological site in the US state of Virginia. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state The Paisley Caves complex are a system of four Caves in an arid desolate region of south-central Oregon, United States. Summer Lake is a large shallow Alkali lake in Lake County, Oregon, United States. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Meadows Rockshelter is an Archaeological site located near Avella in Washington County, in southwestern Pennsylvania, United States The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Monte Verde is an Archaeological site in south-central Chile, which has been dated to 14500 years before present Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the

Contents

Description

The culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found in 1936 and 1937 at Blackwater Draw Locality #1, near Portales, New Mexico. Blackwater Draw, also known as Anderson Basin or Blackwater Locality No Portales is a city in and the County seat of Roosevelt County, New Mexico, United States. People began collecting artifacts at this site in the late 1920s but artifacts and animal remains that had not moved since the Pleistocene were not recovered until 1936. The in situ finds of 1936 and 1937 included stone Clovis points, two long bone points with impact damage, stone blades, a portion of a Clovis blade core, and several cutting tools made on stone flakes. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America, and even into Northern South America. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. [3]

A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively-shaped fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. This is an article about a particle accelerator For uses of spear, see Spear or Spear (disambiguation. Clovis points are the diagnostic Projectile point associated with the North American Clovis culture. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides. In archaeology a biface is a two-sided Stone tool, manufactured through a process of Lithic reduction, that displays flake scars on both sides Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups. It is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoth as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. A mammoth is any Species of the Extinct Genus Mammuthus. These Proboscideans are members of the elephant family and Mammoth is only a small part of the Clovis diet; extinct bison, mastodon, sloths, tapir, palaeolama, horse and a host of smaller animals have also been found in Clovis sites where they were killed and eaten. Bison antiquus sometimes called the ancient bison, was the most common large Herbivore of the North American continent for over ten thousand years and is Mastodons or Mastodonts (from Greek μαστός and οδούς, meaning " Nipple tooth" are members of the extinct Ground sloths are a diverse group of Extinct Sloths Mammals in the edentate Superorder Xenarthra. Tapirs (ˈteɪpɚ as in "taper" or /təˈpɪər/ as "ta-pier" are large browsing Mammals, roughly pig-like in shape with short The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have been used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited. Clovis sites are known from most of North America, some parts of Central America, and even into northern South America in Venezuela (see Pearson and Ream 2005).

Disappearance of Clovis

The most commonly held perspective on the end of the Clovis culture is that a decline in the availability of megafauna, combined with an overall increase in population, led to local differentiation of lithic and cultural traditions across the Americas. [4] [2] After this time, Clovis-style fluted points disappear, although other fluted-point traditions (such as the Folsom culture continue essentially uninterrupted. The Folsom Complex is a name given by Archaeologists to a specific Paleo-Indian Archaeological culture that occupied much of central North America An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Late Paleoindian. [5] However, it has also been argued by others that Clovis ended more abruptly.

Whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting — the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis — is still an open, and controversial, question. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. The greater likelihood is that a combination of climate change, human predation, disease, and additional pressures from newly arrived herbivores (competition) and carnivores (predation) and isolation made it impossible for them to reproduce and survive. It has also been hypothesized that the Clovis culture saw its decline in the wake of the Younger Dryas cold phase. The Younger Dryas Stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze, was a brief (approximately This 'cold shock' lasting roughly 1,500 years affected many parts of the world, including North America. It appears to have been triggered by a vast meltwater lake — Lake Agassiz — emptying into the North Atlantic, disrupting the thermohaline circulation. Lake Agassiz was an immense Glacial lake located in the center of North America. The term thermohaline circulation (THC refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is thought to be driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and Some have suggested the Younger Dryas began when an extraterrestrial object exploded in Earth's atmosphere above North America's Great Lakes region about 12,900 years ago,[6] though this hypothesis is not universally accepted. The Laurentian Great Lakes are a chain of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada–United States border. An apparent association of the last Clovis artifacts and an organic stratigraphic layer laid down during the Younger Dryas has been noted:[7]

“ At sites stretching from California to the Carolinas and as far north as Alberta and Saskatchewan, researchers have long noted an enigmatic layer of carbon-rich sediment that was laid down nearly 13 millennia ago. "Clovis artifacts are never found above this black mat," says Allen West, a geophysicist with Geoscience Consulting in Dewey, Ariz. The layer, typically a few millimeters thick, lies between older, underlying strata that are chock-full of mammoth bones and younger, fossilfree sediments immediately above. ”

The occurrence of several types of black mats was documented by C. Vance Haynes at two-thirds of 97 North American geoarchaeological sites he examined dating to the termination of the Clovis people and the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. [8] In his abstract Haynes notes: "Recent evidence for extraterrestrial impact, although not yet compelling, needs further testing because a remarkable major perturbation occurred at 10,900 B. P. that needs to be explained. "

Given Lake Agassiz' location just north of the Great Lakes, and the proposed impact site above the Great Lakes, it is possible that both theories are correct -- that the glaciers around the Great Lakes were impacted, spilling Lake Agassiz into those lakes, out the St. Lawrence, and into the Atlantic.

Discovery

A cowboy and former slave, George McJunkin, found an Ancient Bison (an extinct relative of the American Bison) skeleton with an associated Folsom point in 1908 after a massive flood. Bison antiquus sometimes called the ancient bison, was the most common large Herbivore of the North American continent for over ten thousand years and is The American bison ( Bison bison) is a Bovine Mammal, also commonly known as the American buffalo. Folsom points are a distinct form of chipped stone Projectile points associated with the Folsom Tradition of North America. It was first excavated in 1926, near Folsom, New Mexico under the direction of Harold Cook and Jesse Figgins. Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Folsom is a village in Union County, New Mexico, United States. In 1929, 19-year-old James Ridgley Whiteman, discovered the Clovis Man Site in the Blackwater Draw in Eastern New Mexico. Year 1929 ( MCMXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. Despite earlier legitimate Paleoindian discoveries, the best understood evidence of the Clovis tool complex was excavated in 1932-1937 in Clovis, New Mexico, by a crew under the direction of Edgar Billings Howard from the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences/University of Pennsylvania. Clovis is a City in and the County seat of Curry County, New Mexico, United States Howard's crew left their excavation in Burnet Cave, New Mexico (truly the first professionally excavated Clovis site) in August and visited Whiteman and his Blackwater Draw site. Burnet Cave (also known as Rocky Arroyo Cave of Wetmore) is an important Archaeological and Paleontological site located in Eddy County New Mexico In November, Howard was back at Blackwater Draw to investigate additional finds by Whiteman.

There may be earlier reports of the Paleoindian layers of the dig in Burnet Cave, but it seems likely that the first report of professional work at a Clovis site concerns the Blackwater Draw site in the November 25, 1932 issue of Science News. This directly contradicts statements by some authors (Haynes 2002:56 The Early Settlement of North America) that Dent, Colorado was the first excavated Clovis site. The Dent Site, in Weld County, Colorado, was simply a fossil mammoth excavation in 1932. Weld County is the third most extensive and the ninth most populous of the 64 counties of the State of Colorado of the United States. The first Dent Clovis point was found July 7, 1933. The in situ Clovis point from Burnet Cave was excavated in late August, 1931 and E. B. Howard brought it to the 3rd Pecos Conference and showed it around (see Woodbury 1983).

Clovis First

The predominant hypothesis (known as "Clovis First") among archaeologists in the latter half of the 20th century was that the Clovis people were the first inhabitants of the Americas. The primary support for this was that no solid evidence of pre-Clovis human inhabitation had been found. According to the standard accepted theory, the Clovis people crossed the Beringia land bridge over the Bering Strait from Siberia to Alaska during the period of lowered sea levels during the ice age, then made their way southward through an ice-free corridor east of the Rocky Mountains in present-day western Canada as the glaciers retreated. The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia The Bering Strait (Берингов пролив Beringov proliv) is a sea Strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period.

Alternative hypotheses

Archaeologists have long debated the possible existence of a culture older than Clovis in North and South America.

Predecessors of the Clovis people may have migrated south along the North American coastline. According to researchers Michael Waters and Thomas Stafford of Texas A&M University, new radiocarbon dates place Clovis remains from the continental United States in a shorter time window (13,050 to 12,800 years ago)[9], while radiocarbon dating of the Monte Verde site in Chile place Clovis like culture there as early as 13,500 years ago and remains found at the Channel Islands of California place coastal Paleoindians there 12,500 years ago. Texas A&M University, often called A&M or TAMU, is a Coeducational public Research University located in College Station The Channel Islands of California are a chain of eight islands located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California along the Santa Barbara Channel This suggests that the Paleoindian migration could have spread more quickly along the coastline south, and that populations that settled along that route could have then began migrations eastward into the continent.

In 2004, worked stone tools were found at Topper in South Carolina that have been dated by radiocarbon techniques to 50,000 years ago[10], although there is significant dispute regarding these dates. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Topper is an archaeological site located along the Savannah River in Allendale County South Carolina in the United States. South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. Carbon-14, 14C, or radiocarbon, is a Radioactive isotope of Carbon discovered on February 27, 1940, by [11]. A more substantiated claim is that of Paisley Caves, where rigorous carbon-14 and genetic testing appears to indicate that humans related to modern Native Americans were present in the caves over 1000 14C years before the earliest evidence of Clovis. The Paisley Caves complex are a system of four Caves in an arid desolate region of south-central Oregon, United States. A study published in Science presents strong evidence that humans occupied sites in Monte Verde, at the tip of South America, as early as 13,000 years ago. [12] If this is true then humans must have entered North America long before the Clovis Culture - perhaps 16,000 years ago.

The Tlapacoya site on the shore of the former Lake Chalco reveals bones, hearths, middens, and a curved obsidian blade, presumed to date to over 21,700 years BP, although the dating has been disputed. Tlapacoya is an important Archaeological site in Mexico, located at the foot of the Tlapacoya volcano southeast of Mexico City, on the former shore of Lake Chalco was an Endorheic lake formerly located in the Valley of Mexico and was important for human development in central Mexico. A midden, also known as a kitchen midden, or a shell heap, is a dump for domestic waste. Obsidian is a naturally formed Volcanic Glass that was an important part of the Material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred

Coastal migration route

Recent studies of the mitochondrial DNA of First Nations/Native Americans suggest that the people of the New World may have diverged genetically from Siberians as early as 20,000 years ago, far earlier than the standard theory would suggest. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. First Nations is a term of Ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis people For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. According to one alternative theory, the Pacific coast of North America may have been free of ice such as to allow the first peoples in North America to come down this route prior to the formation of the ice-free corridor in the continental interior. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions No solid evidence has yet been found to support this hypothesis except that genetic analysis of coastal marine life indicates diverse fauna persisting in refugia throughout the Pleistocene ice ages along the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia; these refugia include common food sources of coastal aboriginal peoples, suggesting that a migration along the coastline was feasible at the time.

Solutrean hypothesis

The controversial Solutrean hypothesis proposed in 1999 by Smithsonian archaeologist Dennis Stanford and colleague Bruce Bradley (Stanford and Bradley 2002), suggests that the Clovis people could have inherited technology from the Solutrean people who lived in southern Europe 21,000-15,000 years ago, and who created the first Stone Age artwork in present-day southern France. The Solutrean hypothesis proposes that stone tool technology of the Solutrean culture in prehistoric Europe may have later influenced the development of the Clovis Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Dennis Stanford is the head of the Archaeology Division and Director of the Paleo-Indian Program at the National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Myron Bruce Bradley (born January 25, 1947) is a retired Water polo player from the United States, who competed in two consecutive The Solutrean industry is a relatively advanced flint tool-making style of the Upper Palaeolithic. The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The link is suggested by the similarity in technology between the projectile points of the Solutreans and those of the Clovis people. Such a theory would require that the Solutreans crossed via the edge of the pack ice in the North Atlantic Ocean that then extended to the Atlantic coast of France. They could have done this using survival skills similar to those of the modern Inuit people. Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting Supporters of this hypothesis suggest that stone tools found at Cactus Hill (an early American site in Virginia), that are knapped in a style between Clovis and Solutrean. Cactus Hill is an archaeological site in the US state of Virginia. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state Other scholars such as Emerson F. Greenman and Remy Cottevieille-Giraudet have also suggested a Northern Atlantic point of entry, citing toolmaking similarities between Clovis and Solutrean-era artifacts.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis (see Map in Single-origin hypothesis) has found that some members of some native North American tribes have a maternal ancestry (called haplogroup X) (Schurr 2000) linked to the maternal ancestors of some present day individuals in western Asia and Europe, albeit distantly. In Paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans is one of two hypotheses of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens sapiens In Human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup X is a Human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA haplogroup which can be used to define genetic Populations.

University of New Mexico anthropologist Lawrence G. The University of New Mexico ( UNM) is a Public University in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Straus, a primary critic of the Solutrean hypothesis, points to the theoretical difficulty of the ocean crossing, a lack of Solutrean-specific features in pre-Clovis artifacts, as well as the lack of art (such as that found at Lascaux in France) among the Clovis people, as major deficiencies in the Solutrean hypothesis. Lascaux is the setting of a complex of Caves in southwestern France famous for its prehistoric Cave paintings The original caves are located near The 3,000 to 5,000 radiocarbon year gap between the Solutrean period of France and Spain and the Clovis of the New World also makes such a connection problematic (Straus 2000). In response, defenders of the hypothesis state that the Solutreans introduced a tool-making innovation and not necessarily cultural or artistic practices.

Recent genetic studies

An article in the American Journal of Human Genetics states "Here we show, by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Native American haplogroups, including haplogroup X, were part of a single founding population, thereby refuting multiple-migration models. The American Journal of Human Genetics is a leading Journal in the field of human Genetics. In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes In Human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup X is a Human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA haplogroup which can be used to define genetic Populations. " The study also argues for a Beringian isolation and subsequent coastal migration. [13]

Other possible pre-Clovis sites

In approximate reverse chronological order:

See also

References

  1. ^ History of the Mark Twain National Forest from the website of the Mark Twain National Forest
  2. ^ a b Haynes, Gary (2002). The archaeology of the Americas is the study of the Archaeology of North America, Central America (or Mesoamerica) South America There are several popular models of migration to the New World proposed by the anthropological community Mark Twain National Forest (MTNF is a National forest located in the southern half of Missouri. The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. New York: Cambridge University Press, 52. ISBN 0521524636.  
  3. ^ Pearson, Georges; Ream, Joshua (2005). "Clovis on the Caribbean Coast of Venezuela". Current Research in the Pleistocene 22: 28–31. ISSN 8755-898X. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
  4. ^ Southeastern Prehistory: Paleoindian Period. National Park Service. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
  5. ^ Lepper, Bradley T. (1999). "Pleistocene Peoples of Midcontinental North America", in Bonnichsen, Robson; Turnmire, Karen: Ice Age People of North America. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 362–394.  
  6. ^ Firestone, R. B. ; et al. (2007). "Evidence for an extraterrestrial impact 12,900 years ago that contributed to the megafaunal extinctions and the Younger Dryas cooling". PNAS 104 (41): 16016–16021. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United doi:10.1073/pnas.0706977104. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  7. ^ Perkins, Sid (2007-05-30). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Ice Age Ends Smashingly: Did a comet blow up over eastern Canada?. Science News. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen
  8. ^ Haynes, C. Vance, Jr. (2008). "Younger Dryas "black mats" and the Rancholabrean termination in North America". PNAS 105 (18): 6520–6525. doi:10.1073/pnas.0800560105. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  9. ^ A&M University Press Article
  10. ^ New Evidence Puts Man In North America 50,000 Years Ago from the ScienceDaily website
  11. ^ Scientist: Man in Americas earlier than thought, a CNN article on the South Carolina discoveries
  12. ^ Science, May 9, 2008, Ancient Algae Suggest Sea Rount for First Americans
  13. ^ Fagundes, Nelson J. Dan Hogan Editoreditor@sciencedailycom Michele Hogan Sales Managersales@sciencedaily Cable News Network, usually referred to by its Initialism CNN, is a major English language Television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner R. ; et al. (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas". American Journal of Human Genetics 82 (3): 583–592. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.11.013. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  14. ^ Walter A. Neves and Mark Hubbe: Cranial morphology of early Americans from Lagoa Santa, Brazil: Implications for the settlement of the New World. Walter Neves is a Brazilian Anthropologist, Archaeologist and Biologist from the University of São Paulo (USP Brazil. Laboratorio de Estudos Evolutivos Humanos, Departamento de Genetica e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociencias, Universidade de Sao Paulo.
  15. ^ Webb et al 2006 First Floridians and Last Mastodons, Springer
  16. ^ Schafer from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
  17. ^ Ancient Stone "Tools" Found; May Be Among Americas' Oldest from the National Geographic website
  18. ^ DNA from Fossil Feces breaks Clovis Barrier
  19. ^ New Scientist 12/4/08 pg 15
  20. ^ Mud Lake Site from the website of the "Friends of the Ice Age" in Kenosha County, Wisconsin
  21. ^ "The Greatest Journey," James Shreeve, National Geographic, March 2006, pg. Kenosha County is a county located along the West Shore of Lake Michigan in the far southeastern corner U Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural Kenosha County is a county located along the West Shore of Lake Michigan in the far southeastern corner U 64
  22. ^ Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia Pre-Clovis Occupation on the Nottoway River in Virginia from the website of the Athena Review, Vol. 2, no. 3

Further reading

External links

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