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In linguistics, a clitic is a grammatically independent and phonologically dependent word. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning A word is a unit of Language that carries meaning and consists of one or more Morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together and has a Phonetic [1] It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level. An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word In Grammar, a phrase is a group of Words that functions as a single unit in the Syntax of a sentence. For example, the English possessive -'s is a clitic; in the phrase the girl next door’s cat, -’s is phonologically attached to the preceding word door while grammatically combined with the phrase the girl next door, the possessor. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Possession, in the context of Linguistics, is an asymmetric relationship between two constituents the Referent of one of which (the possessor) possesses

Clitics may belong to any grammatical category, though they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. In Linguistics and Grammar, a pronoun is a Pro-form that substitutes for a (including a noun phrase consisting of a single Noun) with or In Grammar, a preposition is a Part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase.

Contents

Classification

A clitic that precedes its host is called a proclitic.

A clitic that follows its host is called an enclitic.

A mesoclitic appears between the stem of the host and other affixes. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. SPQR is an initialism from a Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus ("The Senate and the People of Rome" or "The In Linguistics, a stem (sometimes also theme) is the part of a word that is common to all its inflected variants

A final type of clitic, the endoclitic, splits apart the root and is inserted between the two pieces. Endoclitics defy the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (Lexicalist Hypothesis) and so were long claimed to be impossible, but evidence from the Udi language suggests that they do exist. The Udi language, spoken by the Udi people, is a member of the Northeast Caucasian language family. [2] Endoclitics are also found in Pashto. Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو‎ pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as [3]. In addition to Udi and Pashto, endoclitics are reported to exist in Degema. [4]

Properties of clitics

Some clitics can be understood as elements undergoing a historical process of grammaticalization:[5]

lexical item → clitic → affix

According to this model, an autonomous lexical item in a particular context loses the properties of a fully independent word over time and acquires the properties of a morphological affix. In Historical linguistics, grammaticalisation (also known as grammaticisation or grammatisation) is a process of linguistic change by which a Content An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word At any intermediate stage of this evolutionary process, the element in question can be described as a "clitic". As a result, this term ends up being applied to a highly heterogeneous class of elements, presenting different combinations of word-like and affix-like properties.

One characteristic shared by many clitics is a lack of prosodic independence. In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech A clitic attaches to an adjacent word, known as its host. Orthographic conventions treat clitics in different ways: Some are written as separate words, some are written as one word with their hosts, and some are attached to their hosts, but set off by punctuation (a hyphen or an apostrophe, for example).

Although the term "clitic" can be used descriptively to refer to any element whose grammatical status is somewhere in between a typical word and a typical affix, linguists have proposed various definitions of "clitic" as a technical term. One common approach is to treat clitics as words that are prosodically deficient: they cannot appear without a host, and they can only form an accentual unit in combination with their host. The term "postlexical clitic" is used for this narrower sense of the term.

Given this basic definition, further criteria are needed to establish a dividing line between postlexical clitics and morphological affixes, since both are characterized by a lack of prosodic autonomy. There is no natural, clear-cut boundary between the two categories (since from a historical point of view, a given form can move gradually from one to the other by morphologization). However, by identifying clusters of observable properties that are associated with core examples of clitics on the one hand, and core examples of affixes on the other, one can pick out a battery of tests that provide an empirical foundation for a clitic/affix distinction.

An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base morpheme of a limited part of speech, such as a verb, to form a new word. Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning In Morpheme-based morphology, a morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. In Grammar, a lexical category (also word class, lexical class, or in traditional grammar part of speech) is a linguistic category of words (or A clitic syntactically functions above the word level, on the phrase or clause level, and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to. In Grammar, a phrase is a group of Words that functions as a single unit in the Syntax of a sentence. In Grammar, a clause is a word or group of words that consists of a subject and a predicate, although in some Languages and some types of [6] The results of applying these criteria sometimes reveal that elements that have traditionally been called "clitics" actually have the status of affixes (e. g. the Romance pronominal clitics discussed below).

Clitics do not always appear next to the word or phrase that they are associated with grammatically. They may be subject to global word order constraints that act on the entire sentence. Many languages, for example, obey "Wackernagel's Law", which requires clitics to appear in "second position", after the first syntactic phrase or the first stressed word in a clause:

Several clitics appearing in the same position (sharing the same host) form a "clitic cluster". Jacob Wackernagel (also Jakob, 1853&ndash1938 was an Indo-Europeanist and scholar of Sanskrit. Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the The relative order of clitics in a cluster is usually strictly fixed (just as affixes appear in a strict order within a single word):

Clitics in English

English enclitics include:

English proclitics include:

The contraction n’t as in couldn’t etc. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In Linguistics, an auxiliary (also called helping verb, helper verb, auxiliary verb, or verbal auxiliary) is a Verb functioning has been shown to have the properties of an affix, rather than a syntactically independent clitic. An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word [7] In English, clitics must be unstressed, but not as a full word cannot be unstressed.

Stress also prevents cliticization as follows:

Clitics in Romance

In the Romance languages, the articles and direct and indirect object personal pronoun forms are clitics. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all An object in Grammar is a Sentence element and part of the sentence predicate. Personal pronouns are Pronouns used as substitutes for proper or common Nouns. In Spanish, for example:

According to most criteria, in fact, the pronominal clitics in most of the Romance languages have already developed into affixes. [8]

There is still some debate as to whether or not this change from clitic to affix has occurred with French subject pronouns. Subject pronouns, especially, are still considered clitics as they force a topicalized reading of a coindexed XP. X-bar theory is a component of linguistic theory which attempts to identify syntactic features common to all languages [9]

Some dialects of Portuguese (such as that spoken in Portugal) allow clitic object pronouns to surface as mesoclitics:[10]

Further examples

In the Indo-European languages, some clitics can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European: for example, *-kwe is the original form of Sanskrit च, Greek τε, and Latin -que. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Examples of some non-Indo-European languages are shown below:

See also

References

  1. ^ SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a clitic?
  2. ^ Harris, Alice C. Luganda, sometimes known as Ganda, is a major language of Uganda, spoken by over three million people mainly in the Buganda region which includes The continuous and progressive aspects are Grammatical aspects that express incomplete action in progress at a specific time they are non-habitual imperfective An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word Clitic doubling, or pronominal reduplication, in Linguistics, is a phenomenon by which Clitic Pronouns appear in Verb phrases together The possessive case of a language is a Grammatical case used to indicate a relationship of possession. A separable verb is a Verb that is composed of a verb stem and a Separable affix. Tmesis (from Ancient Greek grc τμῆσις tmēsis, "a cutting" temnō, "I cut" is a linguistic phenomenon or In the Phonology of Stress-timed languages the weak form of a word is a form that may be used when the word has no stress and which is phonemically distinct A weak pronoun is a Pronoun phonetically more independent than Clitic pronouns but less independent than ordinary pronouns In Grammar, the genitive case or possessive case (also called the second case) is the case that marks a Noun as modifying another (2002). Endoclitics and the Origins of Udi Morphosyntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199246335.  
  3. ^ Craig A. Kopris & Anthony R. Davis (AppTek, Inc. / StreamSage, Inc. ) Endoclitics in Pashto: Implications for Lexical Integrity (abstract pdf)
  4. ^ Kari, Ethelbert Emmanuel (2003). Clitics in Degema: A Meeting Point of Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. ISBN 4872978501.  
  5. ^ Hopper, Paul J. ; Elizabeth Closs Traugott (2003). Grammaticalization, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80421-9.  
  6. ^ Zwicky, Arnold (1977). Arnold M Zwicky is a perennial Visiting Professor of Linguistics at Stanford University, and Distinguished University Professor Emeritus of linguistics On Clitics. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.  
  7. ^ Zwicky, Arnold M. ; Geoffrey K. Pullum (1983). "Cliticization vs. inflection: the case of English n't". Language 59: 502–513.  
  8. ^ Monachesi, Paola; Philip Miller (2003). "Les pronoms clitiques dans les langues romanes", in Danièle Godard (ed. ): Les langues romanes: Problèmes de la phrase simple (in French). Paris: CNRS Editions, 67–123. ISBN 978-2-271-06149-2.  
  9. ^ De Cat, Cécile (2005). "French subject clitics are not agreement makers" (PDF). Lingua 115: 1195-1219. ISSN 0024-3841. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
  10. ^ Gadelii, Karl Erland (2002). "Pronominal Syntax in Maputo Portuguese (Mozambique) from a Comparative Creole and Bantu Perspective" (PDF). Africa & Asia 2: 27-41. ISSN 1650-2019. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
  11. ^ Chae, Hee-Rahk (1995). "Clitic Analyses of Korean "Little Words"" (html). Language, Information and Computation Proceedings of the 10th Pacific Asia Conference: 97-102.  
  12. ^ James Hye Suk Yoon. Non-morphological Determination of Nominal Particle Ordering in Korean.

Dictionary

clitic

-noun

  1. (linguistics) A morpheme that functions like a word, but appears not as an independent word but rather is always attached to a following or preceding word. In English, the possessive -'s is an example.
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