Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Its use spanned the Golden Age of Latin literature—broadly the 1st century BC and the early 1st century AD—possibly extending to the Silver Age—broadly the 1st and 2nd centuries. The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era.

What is now called "Classical Latin" was, in fact, a highly stylized and polished written literary language selectively constructed from early Latin, of which far fewer works remain. A literary language is a register of a Language that is used in Literary Writing. Old Latin (also called Early Latin or Archaic Latin) refers to the Latin language in the period before the age of Classical Latin; that is all Classical Latin is the product of the reconstruction of early Latin in the prototype of Attic Greek. Attic Greek is the Prestige dialect of Ancient Greece that was spoken in Attica, which includes Athens. Classical Latin differs from the earliest Latin literature, such as that of Cato the Elder, Plautus, and to some extent Lucretius, in a number of ways. Marcus Porcius Cato ( Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO (234 BC Tusculum &ndash149 BC was a Roman statesman surnamed the Censor Titus Maccius Plautus (c 254–184 BCE commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman Playwright. Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. It diverged from Old Latin in that the early -om and (nominative singular) -os endings of the 2nd declension shifted into -um and -us ones, and some semantic shifts also occurred in the lexicon (e. Old Latin (also called Early Latin or Archaic Latin) refers to the Latin language in the period before the age of Classical Latin; that is all g. , forte meant not only "surprisingly" but also "hard").

The spoken Latin of the common people of the Roman Empire, especially from the 2nd century onward, is generally called Vulgar Latin. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin Vulgar Latin differed from Classical Latin in its vocabulary and grammar, and as time passed, it came to differ in pronunciation as well.

Authors of the Golden Age

Poetry

The earliest poet of the Golden Age is considered to be Lucretius, who wrote a long philosophical poem expounding Epicureanism, On the Nature of Things. Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. On the Nature of Things (Latin De rerum natura) is a first century BC Poem by the Roman Poet and Philosopher

Virgil's bust, on his tomb in Naples. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the

Catullus wrote at a slightly later date. For persons with a Cognomen "Catulus" see Lutatius Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca He pioneered the naturalization of Greek lyric verse forms in Latin. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music The poetry of Catullus was personal, sometimes erotic, sometimes playful, and frequently abusive. He wrote exclusively in Greek metres. The heavy hand of Greek prosody would continue to have a pronounced influence on the style and syntax of Latin poetry until the rise of Christianity necessitated a different sort of hymnody. In Poetry, the meter or metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities

The Hellenizing tendencies of Golden Age Latin reached their apex in Virgil, whose Aeneid was an epic poem after the manner of Homer. Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or For the group of nine Ancient Egyptian deities see Ennead. The Aeneid (əˈniːɪd in An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Similar tendencies are noted in Horace, whose odes and satires were after the manner of the Greek anthology, and who used almost all of the fixed forms of Greek prosody in Latin. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Ode (from the Ancient Greek) is a form of stately and elaborate lyrical verse. Satire is often strictly defined as a literary genre or form; although in practice it is also found in the graphic and Performing arts In satire human Ovid likewise wrote long and learned poems on mythological subjects, as well as such semi-satirical pieces as the Art of Love (Ars Amatoria). Publius Ovidius Naso ( March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD was a Roman poet known to the English -speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics including Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance Tibullus and Propertius also wrote poems that were modelled after Greek antecedents. Albius Tibullus (ca 54-19 BC was a Latin Poet and writer of elegies. Sextus Aurelius Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet born around 50-45 BCE in Mevania (although other cities in the region of Umbria claim

Prose

In prose, Golden Age Latin is exemplified by Julius Caesar, whose Commentaries on the Gallic Wars display a laconic, precise, military style; and by Marcus Tullius Cicero, a practicing lawyer and politician, whose judicial arguments and political speeches, most notably the Catiline Orations, were considered for centuries to be the best models for Latin prose. For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The Catiline Orations or Catilinarian Orations were speeches given in 63 BC by Marcus Tullius Cicero, the Consul Cicero also wrote many letters which have survived, and a few philosophical tracts in which he gives his version of Stoicism. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC

Historiography was an important genre of classical Latin prose; it includes Sallust, who wrote of the Conspiracy of Catiline and the War Against Jugurtha, his only works that have been preserved complete. For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation. Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC–62 BC known in English as Catiline, was a Roman Politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Jugurtha (ca 160 &ndash 104 BC was a Libyan King of Numidia, born in Cirta. Another historian, Livy, wrote the Ab Urbe Condita, a history of Rome "from the Founding of the City. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Ab Urbe condita (literally "from " Though originally composed of 142 books, only 35 books of this history have been preserved.

The foremost technical work which survives is the De Architectura of Vitruvius, a compilation of building construction methods, design and layout of all public and domestic buildings as well as descriptions of the machines which aided construction. De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum He also gives a detailed description of many other machines, such as the ballista used in war, surveying instruments, water mills and dewatering devices such as the reverse overshot water-wheel. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. Frequently used in mines and probably elsewhere the reverse overshot Water wheel was a Roman innovation to help remove water from the lowest levels of underground workings

Silver Age Latin

Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. No contemporary depiction of Pliny has survived.

Sketch of Apuleius

Classical Latin continued to be used into the "Silver Age" of Latin literature, which spans the 1st and 2nd centuries, and directly follows the Golden Age. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Literature from the Silver Age has traditionally, perhaps unfairly, been considered inferior to that of the Golden Age, although contemporary historians have voiced legitimate criticisms concerning perhaps a too great a reliance on trying to emulate the Golden Age and a 'messy' style of teaching rhetoric as possible causes for this alleged decline in quality. Silver Age Latinity is sometimes called "Post-Augustan". Among the works which survive, those of Pliny the Elder and Pliny the Younger inspired later generations, especially during the Renaissance. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere

Writers of the silver age include:

• Phaedrus (c. Phaedrus (c 15 BC – c AD 50) Roman Fabulist, was probably a Thracian slave born in Pydna of Macedonia (Roman province 15 BC-50)
• Seneca the Younger (c. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c 4 BC-65)
• Pliny the Elder (23-79)
• Petronius Arbiter (c. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Petronius (ca 27–66 was a Roman writer of the Neronian age he was a noted satirist. 27-66)
• Persius (34-62)
• Quintilian (c. Persius, in full Aulus Persius Flaccus ( Volterra, 34-62 was a Roman Poet and Satirist of Etruscan origin Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and 35-c. 100)
• Lucan (39-65)
• Martial (40-c. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca 103)
• Statius (45-96)
• Tacitus (c. Publius Papinius Statius (ca 45-96 was a Roman Poet of the Silver Age of Latin literature, born in Naples, Italy. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. 56-c. 117)
• Pliny the Younger (63-c. Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61/63 - ca 113)
• Suetonius (c. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. 70-c. 130 or later)
• Juvenal (fl. Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, known in English as Juvenal, was a Roman Poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD author of the 127)
• Aulus Gellius (c. Aulus Gellius (ca 125 AD—after 180 AD Latin author and grammarian possibly of African origin probably born and certainly brought up at Rome. 125-c. 180 or later)
• Apuleius (c. Apuleius should not be confused with Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a Roman demagogue or with Pseudo-Apuleius, an author 125-c. 180)

The Silver Age also furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon. The Metamorphoses of Lucius Apuleius, which according to St Augustine was referred to as The Golden Ass ( Asinus aureus Satyricon (or Satyrica) is a Latin work of fiction in a mixture of prose and poetry

Stylistic shifts

Silver Age Latin itself may be subdivided further into two periods: a period of radical experimentation in the latter half of the first century AD, and a renewed Neoclassicism in the second century AD. Neoclassicism (sometimes rendered as Neo-Classicism or Neo-classicism) is the name given to quite distinct movements in the decorative and

Plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow. The Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts (Russian Музей изобразительных искусств им Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of

Ancient bust of Seneca, part of a double herm (Antikensammlung Berlin)

Under the reigns of Nero and Domitian, poets like Seneca the Younger, Lucan and Statius pioneered a unique style that has alternately delighted, disgusted and puzzled later critics. The Antikensammlung Berlin (Berlin Antiquities collection is one of the most important collections of classical art in the world now held in the Altes Museum and Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Publius Papinius Statius (ca 45-96 was a Roman Poet of the Silver Age of Latin literature, born in Naples, Italy. Stylistically, Neronian and Flavian literature shows the ascendence of rhetorical training in late Roman education. The style of these authors is unfailingly declamatory — at times eloquent, at times bombastic. Exotic vocabulary and sharply-polished aphorisms glimmer everywhere, though at times to the detriment of thematic coherence.

Thematically, late 1st century literature is marked by an interest in terrible violence, witchcraft, and extreme passions. Under the influence of Stoicism, the gods recede in importance, while the physiology of emotions looms large. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Passions like anger, pride and envy are painted in almost anatomical terms of inflammation, swelling, upsurges of blood or bile. For Statius, even the inspiration of the Muses is described as a calor ("fever").

While their extremity in both theme and diction has earned these poets the disapproval of Neoclassicists both ancient and modern, they were favorites during the European Renaissance, and underwent a revival of interest among the English Modernist poets. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century

By the end of the 1st century, a reaction against this form of poetry had set in, and Tacitus, Quintilian and Juvenal all testify to the resurgence of a more restrained, classicizing style under Trajan and the Antonine emperors. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, known in English as Juvenal, was a Roman Poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD author of the Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who This page is on the Roman imperial dynasty for Catholic clergy of the same name see Anthonians The Antonines most often referred to were two successive

See also

• Latin Literature