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Christian theology is discourse concerning Christian faith. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The virgin birth of Jesus is a religious Tenet of Christianity and Islam which holds that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era ( AD) to the present Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Jews and Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Slavonic Orthodox Georgian Armenian Apostolic A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus including his divinity humanity and earthly life In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance This is an overview of the History of Christian Theology from the time of Christ to the present Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, defend the faith against objections Christian tradition is a collection of Traditions of practice or belief associated with Christianity. Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus ( c This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. A creed is a statement of Belief — usually Religious belief — or Faith often recited as part of a religious service See also Evangelism, Christianization A Christian mission has been widely defined since the Lausanne Congress of 1974 as that which The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic Prayer is an important theme in Christianity, and there are several different forms of prayer Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation Christianity and other religions appear to share some elements Christian movements are theological, political or philosophical interpretations of Christianity that are not generally represented by a specific church Christian music is music that is written to express either personal or a communal belief regarding Christian life A Liturgy is a set form of ceremony or pattern of worship Christian liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed by a Christian congregation or The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when Christian symbolism is defined as the investing of outward things or actions with an inner meaning the expression of Christian ideas Christian art is Art produced in an attempt to illustrate supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Throughout the History of Christianity, a wide range of Christians and non-Christians alike have offered criticisms of Christianity, the Church, and Christians Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument to understand, explain, test, critique, defend or promote Christianity. Exegesis (from the Greek 'to lead out' involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a Holy Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Understanding (also called intellection) is a psychological Process related to an abstract or physical object such as Person, situation or An explanation is a description which may clarify causes context, and Consequences of a certain object and a phenomenon such as a process, a The word critic comes from the Greek el κριτικός ( el-Latn kritikós) "able to discern" which in turn derives from the word Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian understand Christianity more truly,[1] make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions,[2] defend Christianity against critics, facilitate Christianity's reform,[3] assist in the propagation of Christianity,[4] draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need,[5] or for a variety of other reasons. Comparative religion is a field of Religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes myths rituals and concepts among the world's religions Proselytism is the practice of attempting to convert people to another opinion and particularly another religion

Christian theology has permeated much of Western culture, especially in pre-modern Europe. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Therefore, because of their interdependence a proper understanding of either Western culture or Christian theology requires a full understanding of both.

Contents

The emergence of Christian theology

The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been presented as the triumph of Hellenistic rationality over the Hebraic faith of Jesus and the early disciples. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The early African theologian Tertullian, for instance, complained that the 'Athens' of philosophy was corrupting the 'Jerusalem' of faith. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca [6] More recent discussions have qualified and nuanced this picture.

The history of Christian theology

Main article: History of Christian theology

Early Christian theology

The New Testament contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the Pauline corpus and Johannine corpus. This is an overview of the History of Christian Theology from the time of Christ to the present Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Scholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works ( Gospel of John, the first, second, and third epistles of John, and the Book

A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the Greek language literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The period sees the slow emergence of orthodoxy (the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between catholic Christianity and Gnostic Christianity), the establishment of a Biblical canon, debates about the doctrine of the Trinity (most notably between the councils of Nicaea in 325 and Constantinople in 381), about Christology (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and Chalcedon in 451), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the Donatists), and about grace, free will and predestination (for instance in the debate between Augustine of Hippo and Pelagius). The word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion" from orthos ("right true straight" + doxa ("opinion Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire Gladiatorial combat is outlawed in the Roman Empire The Second Ecumenical Council the first held in Constantinople was called by Theodosius I in 381 which confirmed the Nicene Creed and dealt with other matters such Events By Place Roman Empire A deputation from the Roman Senate delivers to Gratianus the robe of the Pontifex Maximus Christology (from Christ and Greek grc -λογία -logia) is a field of study within Christian theology which is concerned with The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of Events By Place Western Roman Empire April 7 — The Huns sack Metz. The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian Donatus Magnus) were followers of a belief considered a Schism by the broader churches of the In Christianity, divine Grace refers to the sovereign favour of God for humankind — especially in regard to Salvation — irrespective of actions The question of free will Predestination (also linked with Foreknowledge) is a religious concept which involves the relationship between God and His creation Pelagius (ca 354 &ndash ca 420/440 was an ascetic monk who denied the doctrine of Original sin, later developed by Augustine of Hippo, and

Texts from patristic authors before 325 AD are collected in the Ante-Nicene Fathers. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled "The Writings of the Fathers Down to A

Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers is a set of books containing translations of early Christian writings into English Important theological debates also surrounded the various Ecumenical Councils – Nicaea in 325, Constantinople in 381, Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon in 451 See also main articles on Patristics and Church Fathers. This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine The Second Ecumenical Council the first held in Constantinople was called by Theodosius I in 381 which confirmed the Nicene Creed and dealt with other matters such This article covers the Ecumenical council of 431 For the council of 449 see Second Council of Ephesus. The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of Patristics or Patrology is the study of early Christian writers known as the Church Fathers. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church

Medieval Christian theology

While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.


Before the Carolingian Empire

When the Western Roman Empire fragmented under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserved in Italy by men like Boethius and Cassiodorus was different from the vigorous Frankish Christianity documented by Gregory of Tours which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in Ireland and Northumbria in the seventh and eighth centuries. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c 485 - c 585 commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and great writer serving in the administration The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more monastic affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one

Theology in the time of Charlemagne

Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the Carolingian Empire saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish Adoptionism, around the views on predestination of Gottschalk, or around the eucharistic views of Ratramnus. Adoptionism, also called dynamic Monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus (c 808 &ndash October 30, 867 ? a theologian, was born near Mainz, and was given to the monastic life ( Ratramnus (died circa 868 was a Frankish theological controversialist of the second half of the ninth century


Before Scholasticism

With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at Auxerre in the 9th century or Chartres in the 11th. Auxerre (pronounced) is a commune in the Bourgogne region of north-central France, between Paris and Dijon. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Chartres is a town and commune and capital of the Eure-et-Loir department in north-central France It is located 96 km southwest of Paris Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as Gerbert of Aurillac, who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to Otto III. Pope Sylvester II, or Silvester II (c 946&ndash May 12, 1003) born Gerbert d'Aurillac, was a prolific scholar teacher and Pope Otto III (980 &ndash January 23, 1002) was the fourth ruler of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic Ottonian Holy Roman Empire, successor to the Carolingian Empire). The Ottonian dynasty was a dynasty of Germanic Kings (919-1024 named after its first emperor but also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around Berengar of Tours in the 11th Century: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century. Berengar of Tours (c 999&ndash January 6, 1088) was a French 11th century Christian theologian a scholar whose leadership of the cathedral


Early Scholasticism and its contemporaries

Anselm of Canterbury is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 &ndash April 21, 1109) was an Italian medieval Philosopher, theologian, and church official His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the gloss on Scripture associated with Anselm of Laon, the rise to prominence of dialectic (middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production by Peter Lombard of a collection of Sentences or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. This article is about the literary term For other uses see Gloss (disambiguation. Anselm of Laon (died 1117 was a French theologian. Born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century he is said to have studied In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; (c 1100 — July 20, 1160 in Paris) was a scholastic theologian and Bishop and author The Four Books of Sentences ( Libri Quattuor Sententiarum) is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the twelfth century Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences.

High Scholasticism and its contemporaries

The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the Cathars and Waldensians and the associated rise of the mendicant orders (notably the Franciscans and Dominicans), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. General description The earliest Waldensians believed in poverty and austerity promoting true poverty public preaching and the personal study of the scriptures The mendicant orders are religious orders which depend directly on the charity of the people for their livelihood The term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as Alexander of Hales (Franciscan) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic Bonaventure (Franciscan). Alexander Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius; called Doctor Irrefragabilis and Theologorum Monarcha) was a Saint Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (San Bonaventura (1221 &ndash July 15, 1274) born John of Fidanza (Giovanni di Fidanza was the eighth Minister The century also saw a flourishing of mystical theology, with women such as Mechthild of Magdeburg playing a prominent role. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Mechthild (or Mechtild of Magdeburg (1210 &ndash c 1285 was a Medieval mystic, a Beguine, and a Cistercian nun, whose book Das In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. Robert Grosseteste (c 1175 &ndash October 9, 1253) English statesman scholastic philosopher, Theologian and Bishop of For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O

Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries

Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the nominalist or voluntarist theologies of men like William of Ockham. Nominalism is a metaphysical view in Philosophy according to which general or abstract terms and predicates exist but that either universals Voluntarism can refer to Voluntarism (action, the use of or reliance on voluntary action to maintain an institution carry out a policy or achieve an end William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as conciliarism, Lollardy and the Hussites. Conciliarism, or the conciliar movement, was a reform movement in the 14th and 15th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority Lollardy was the political and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid- 14th century to the English Reformation. The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus or John Huss (c Spiritual movements such as the Devotio Moderna also flourished. Devotio Moderna, or Modern Devotion, was a religious movement of the Late Middle Ages.

See also Scholasticism

Reformation and Counter-Reformation Christian theology

The Renaissance yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the Reformation, a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of the Bible. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Most important were Martin Luther, John Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon, Martin Bucer and the Anabaptists. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian Martin Bucer (or Butzer) ( 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551) was a Protestant reformer whose principal ministry was Anabaptists ( Greek ανα (again twice + βαπτιζω (baptize thus "re-baptizers" are Christians of the Radical Reformation Their Theology was developed by successors such as Theodore Beza, the English Puritans and Francis Turretin. Theodore Beza ( Théodore de Bèze or de Besze) ( June 24, 1519 &ndash October 13, 1605) was a French A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, Francis Turretin (also known as François Turretini) was the grandson of Francesco Turrettini who left his native Lucca in 1574 and settled in Geneva

The Roman Catholic counter-reformation spearheaded by the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola took their Theology from the decisions of the Council of Trent. The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Saint Ignatius redirects here for other Saints see Ignatius. Ignatius of Loyola, also known as Íñigo Oñaz López de Loyola The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily.

The fall of Constantinople in the East, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia, the "Third Rome". Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "Old believers" consequently resulted and influenced Russian Orthodox Theology in the direction of conservatism and Erastianism. Introductory summary of origins In 1652 Nikon (1605 – 1681 Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658 introduced a number of ritual and textual Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined Thomas Erastus ( September 7, 1524 &ndash December 31, 1583) was a Swiss theologian best known for a posthumously

Modern Christian theology

After the Reformation protestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The "Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional zeal. Enthusiasm (ἐνθουσιασμός enthousiasmos) originally meant Inspiration or possession by a divine Afflatus or by the presence of a These included the Methodists, the Quakers and Baptists. Methodism is a movement within Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the Nicene creed and Chalcedonian Creed. The Nicene Creed (ˈnaɪsiːn is an ecumenical Christian statement of faith accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of The Confession of Chalcedon (also Definition or Creed of Chalcedon) also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "2-Nature Doctrine" these included Unitarians and Universalists. Unitarianism as a theology is the belief in the single personality of God in contrast to the doctrine of the Trinity (three persons in one God Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as synergism versus monergism, though the labels Calvinist and Arminian are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the Synod of Dort. Synergism, in general may be defined as two or more agents working together to produce a result not obtainable by any of the agents independently Monergism is the name for the belief held by some in Christian theology that through the preaching of the word the Holy Spirit alone can act to effectually bring about Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought within Protestant Christianity based on the theological ideas of the Dutch The Synod of Dort was a National Synod held in Dordrecht in 1618[[ 619|/19]] by the Dutch Reformed Church, in order to settle a serious controversy

The Nineteenth century saw the rise of biblical criticism, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents and above all the growth of science. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document This led many church men to espouse a form of Deism. Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of miracles led to what is called "Classic Liberalism". A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation Classical liberalism (also known as traditional liberalism, Laissez-faire liberalism, Market liberalism or in much of the world Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two world wars and fell prey to the criticisms of postmodernism. A world war is a War affecting the majority of the world's most powerful and populous nations Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism

Vladimir Lossky is a famous Eastern Orthodox theologian writing in the 20th century for the Greek church. Vladimir Nikolayevich Lossky (Владимир Николаевич Лосский &ndash February 7, 1958) was an influential Eastern Orthodox The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world

Postmodern theology

Postmodern theology seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the death of God movement, Process Theology, Feminist theology, Queer Theology and Neo-orthodox Theology. Postmodern Christianity is an outlook of Christianity that is closely associated with the body of writings known as Postmodern philosophy. " God is dead " ( German:; also known as the death of God) is a widely-quoted and sometimes misconstrued statement by German philosopher Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical Process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947 Feminist Theology is a movement generally in Christianity, Judaism and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions practices Scriptures Queer theology refers to the application of Queer studies to theology Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann and Reinhold Niebuhr were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. Karl Barth ( May 10, 1886 &ndash December 10, 1968) (pronounced "bart" a Swiss Reformed theologian was one Rudolf Karl Bultmann ( August 20, 1884 – July 30, 1976) was a German theologian of Lutheran background who Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr ( June 21, 1892 &ndash June 1, 1971) was an American theologian. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to existentialism. Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence

The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many reactionary movements amongst conservative believers. Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return Evangelical theology, Pentecostal or Renewal theology and Fundamentalist theology, often combined with Dispensationalism, all moved from the fringe into the academy. Dispensationalism is a Christian theological view of history and Biblical interpretation that became popular during the 1800s and early 1900s and is Marxism stimulated the significant rise of Liberation Theology which can be interpreted as a rejection of Academic Theology that fails to challenge the establishment and help the poor. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Liberation theology is a school of Theology within Christianity, particularly in the Roman Catholic The Establishment is a Pejorative term used to refer to the traditional Ruling class Elite and the structures of society that they control

From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from Protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Latter Day Saints and many so called "cults". Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist, millenialist Christian denomination A Latter This article does not discuss "cult" in the original sense of "veneration" or "religious practice" for that usage see Cult (religious practice Many of these groups use the Protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ.

Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many Christian denominations together. List of Christian denominations (or Denominations self-identified as Christian) ordered by historical and doctrinal relationships As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the World Council of Churches and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. The World Council of Churches ( WCC) is an international But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often Protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians.

The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. Reform Judaism represents a liberal interpretation as against Orthodox Judaism, and moderate or Liberal Islam continues to be theologically distinct from Islamic Fundamentalism, notably its Wahabi and Deobandi Schools. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Progressive Muslims have produced a considerable body of liberal thoughts within Islam (in Arabic: الإسلام الاجتهادي Islamic fundamentalism Arabic: usul (from usul the "fundamentals"] is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the Wahhabism ( Arabic: Al-Wahhābīyya الوهابية or Wahabism is a conservative reformist call of Sunni Islam attributed to The Deobandi ( Urdu: دیو بندی devbandī) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist movement which started in India and has more recently

Divisions of Christian theology

There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology.

Sub-disciplines

Christian theologians may be specialists in one or more theological sub-disciplines. These are the kinds of phrases that one finds in certain job titles such as 'Professor of x', 'Senior Lecturer in y':

Major topics

These topics crop up repeatedly and often in Christian theology; composing the main recurrent 'loci' around which Christian theological discussion revolves.

A traditional pattern

In many Christian seminaries, the four Great Departments of Theology are:

  1. Exegetical theology
  2. Historical theology
  3. Systematic theology
  4. Practical theology

The four departments can usefully be subdivided in the following way:
1. Exegesis (from the Greek 'to lead out' involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a Holy Historical theology is a branch of theological studies that investigates the socio-historical and cultural mechanisms that give rise to theological ideas, systems, Systematic theology is a discipline of Christian theology that attempts to formulate an orderly rational and coherent account of the Christian faith and beliefs Practical theology or applied theology consists of several related sub-fields applied theology (such as missions evangelism pastoral psychology or the psychology of religion Exegetical theology:

  • Biblical studies (analysis of the contents of Scripture)
  • Biblical introduction (inquiry into the origins of the Bible)
  • Canonics (inquiry into how the different books of the Bible came to be collected together)
  • Biblical theology (inquiry into how divine revelation progressed over the course of the Bible). Biblical studies is the academic study of the Judeo-Christian Bible and related texts A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious Biblical theology is a discipline within Christian theology which studies the Bible from the perspective of understanding the progressive history of God

2. Historical theology (study of how Christian theology develops over time):

3. Patristics or Patrology is the study of early Christian writers known as the Church Fathers. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled "The Writings of the Fathers Down to A The Nicene Creed (ˈnaɪsiːn is an ecumenical Christian statement of faith accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers is a set of books containing translations of early Christian writings into English The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Systematic theology:

  • Prolegomena (first principles)
  • Theology Proper
  • Doctrine of Man (theological anthropology)
  • Christology
  • Soteriology
  • Pneumatology (doctrine of the Holy Spirit)
  • Ecclesiology (doctrine of the Church)
  • Eschatology and the afterlife. Theology Proper is the study of God in a Christian Trinitarian system and includes the study of the Holy Spirit ( Pneumatology) and SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных In Theology, Divine Providence, or simply Providence, is the sovereignty superintendence or agency of God over events in people's lives and throughout In the context of Christian theology, Theological anthropology refers to the study of the human ("anthropology" as it relates to God Christology (from Christ and Greek grc -λογία -logia) is a field of study within Christian theology which is concerned with Soteriology is the branch of theology that deals with Salvation. In Christian theology, justification is God 's act of declaring or making a sinner righteous before God The word sanctification (see -ification) refers to the act or Process Pneumatology is the study of spiritual beings and phenomena especially the interactions between humans and God. In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance Ecclesiology (from Greek grc ἐκκλησίᾱ ekklēsiā, "congregation church" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology AfterLife is a film drama set in Scotland directed by Alison Peebles made in 2003 about an ambitious Scottish journalist forced to choose between

4. Practical theology:

  • Moral theology (Christian ethics and casuistry)
  • Ecclesiology
  • Pastoral theology
  • Missiology. Ethics is a branch of Philosophy dealing with right and wrong in human behavior Ecclesiology (from Greek grc ἐκκλησίᾱ ekklēsiā, "congregation church" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the Pastoral theology is the branch of Theology concerned with the practical application of theology in the pastoral context Liturgics is the Academic discipline dedicated to the study of Liturgy. Religious studies, or Religious education, is the academic field of multi-disciplinary Secular study of religious beliefs behaviors and institutions Missiology, or mission science, is the area of practical Theology which investigates the mandate message and work of the Christian Missionary

Roman Catholic theology

One important branch of Christian theology is Roman Catholic theology which has these major teachings:

Controversial movements

Christians have had theological disagreements since the time of Jesus. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Theological disputes have given rise to many schisms and different Christian denominations, sects and movements. The word schism (ˈsɪzəm or /ˈskɪzəm/ from the Greek σχίσμα skhísma (from σχίζω skhízō, "to tear to split" Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within Sometimes theological studies have taken place in universities under secular, often anti-Christan authority. Theology done in such a manner is extremely suspect if no attempt is made to obtain wide feedback from the actual Christian community. In the extreme case a schizophrenic belief system is created which is completely out of touch with the reality of daily life.

Pre-Reformation

Post-Reformation

Since the Reformation emphasized the rights of Christians to expound their own views of theology, most theological distinctions have occurred between the various Protestant denominations. The Simonians were a Gnostic, Antinomian sect of the second century whose teachings simonianism, regarded Simon Magus as its founder and which Some elaboration of Roman Catholic doctrines; however, have been promulgated since that time. The differences between many of the denominations are relatively minor, and this has helped ecumenical efforts in recent times. Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation

Contemporary Theological movements

In addition to the movements listed above, the following are some of the movements found amongst Christian theologians:

Notes

  1. ^ See, e. Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Karl Barth ( May 10, 1886 &ndash December 10, 1968) (pronounced "bart" a Swiss Reformed theologian was one Swedenborgianism The New Church is the name for a religious movement described in the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772 New Covenant Theology refers to a theological view of redemptive history primarily found in Baptist circles and contrasted with Covenant Theology and Dispensationalism Paleo-orthodoxy (from Greek paleo "ancient" and orthodoxy "correct belief" is a Christian theological movement of the late 20th and Pentecostalism is a renewalist religious movement within Christianity that places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the Baptism Personalism is the school of thought that consists of three main principles and which can broadly be qualified as species of Humanism: Only persons are real (in Narrative theology began as a late 20th-century theological development Postmodern Christianity is an outlook of Christianity that is closely associated with the body of writings known as Postmodern philosophy. Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical Process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947 Progressive Christianity is the name given to a movement within contemporary Protestant Christianity characterized by willingness to question tradition acceptance Queer theology refers to the application of Queer studies to theology This article is about the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement and churches that have a historical and/or theological connection to it (e Thomism is the philosophical school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas. Transcendentalism was a group of new ideas in Literature, Religion, Culture, and Philosophy that emerged in New England in the g. , Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)
  2. ^ See, e. g. , David Burrell, Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)
  3. ^ See, e. g. , John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)
  4. ^ See, e. g. , Duncan Dormor et al (eds), Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity (London: Continuum, 2003)
  5. ^ For example, see Timothy Gorringe, Crime, Changing Society and the Churches Series (London:SPCK, 2004)
  6. ^ Tertullian, De praescriptione haereticorum 7.
  7. ^ See, for example, Stephen Sykes, The Identity of Christianity (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, 'Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among the first Christians', Studia Theologica 58. 1, pp. 77-96, for arguments along these lines
  8. ^ Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)
  9. ^ See Rowan Williams, 'Does it make sense to speak of pre – Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed. ) The Making of Orthodoxy (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp. 1-23.

References


See also

A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious Christian anarchism is any of several traditions which combine Anarchism with Christianity. Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation In Christianity, worship has been considered by most Christians to be the central act of Christian identity throughout history as the personal act of The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation The emerging church (sometimes referred to as the emergent church movement) is a Christian movement whose participants seek to live their faith in modern society by Fundamentalist Christianity, also known as Christian Fundamentalism or Fundamentalist Evangelicalism, is a movement that arose mainly within British and Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief For liberal political views within Christianity see Christian left. This is a list of notable Christian theologians. They are listed by century Proto-Methodist theologians Jacobus Arminius - ordained pastor of the Dutch Reformed church studied under Theodore Beza and rejected Neo-Orthodoxy can also refer to a form of Orthodox Judaism following the philosophy of " Torah im Derech Eretz " and can additionally refer to the The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The Wesleyan Quadrilateral is a methodology for theological reflection that is credited to John Wesley, leader of the Methodist movement in the late 18th Word of Faith (also known as Word-Faith or simply Faith) is a family of local Christian churches as well as a teaching movement kindred to many
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