சோழர் குலம் Chola Empire Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) Official Language Tamil Capitals Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur, Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Government Monarchy Preceding state of Early Cholas Unknown Succeeding states Pandyas, Hoysala edit

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The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: சோழர் குலம், IPA: ['ʧoːɻə]) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Puhar (பூம்புகார் (also known as Poompuhar) is a town in Nagapattinam district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Urayur (Currently in Tiruchirappalli was the capital of the Early Cholas from before the first century CE until the dynasty was revived by Vijayalaya Chola c Pazhaiyaarai was an ancient capital of the medieval Chola dynasty, in southern India. Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after Gangaikonda Cholapuram ( Tamil:) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great This is a list of countries categorized by system of Government. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The region of Tamil Nadu in modern India has been under continuous human habitation since prehistoric times and the history of Tamil Nadu and the civilization Pre-historic period c 30000 BCE- Paleolithic industries in north Tamil Nadu c The ancient Tamil country, also known as Tamilakam, refers to an ancient independent region in the areas of modern South India, corresponding roughly There are literary archaeological epigraphic and numismatic sources of ancient Tamil history. The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 CE The economy of the ancient Tamil country ( Sangam era: 200 BCE – 200 CE describes the ancient economy of a region in southern India that covers the present-day state The Early Pandyas were one of the dynasties that ruled the Ancient Tamil country from the pre-Christian era to about 200 AD The people of the ancient Tamil country of the Sangam age (ca The ancient Tamil music was the music of the ancient Tamil people, who resided in the lands of the Ancient Tamil country. Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Prelude Decline of Pandya Rule Muslim Invasion and Vijayanagar Domination Early in the fourteenth century a dispute arose over the succession to the Pandya throne Origins of Nayak rule With the demise of the Chola dynasty in 1279 Thanjavur was ruled by various small chieftains until the Vijayanagara Empire conquered Maratha Conquest of Thanjavur Following the demise of Chola rule in the 13th century the Thanjavur country came under the rule of the Pandyas who ruled Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Tamil people (also called Tamils or Tamilians) ( are an Ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, a state in India, and the north-eastern A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. The Kaveri River ( Kannada: ಕಾವೇರಿ ನದಿ Tamil: காவிரி ஆறு also spelled Cauvery in English Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola I and Kulothunga Chola I were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas. Karikala Chola ( Tamil: கரிகால சோழன்) was the greatest among the early Chola kings of the Sangam age in South India The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. Kulothunga Chola reigned from 1070 until 1120 CE over the vast Chola Empire Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C

The Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th centuries. A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale ^[1] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia. Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. ^[2][3] During the period 1010–1200 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the South to as far North as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching This article is about the river Godavari in India. For other uses see Godavari (disambiguation The Godavari ( Marathi language:गोदावरी ^[4] Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island ^[3] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to Paṭnā ( Hindi: पटना is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited Mahipala I (c 995 - 1043 CE is considered the second founder of the Pala dynasty He also successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Malay Archipelago is a name given to the Archipelago located between mainland Southeastern Asia ( Indochina) and Australia. ^[5][6]

The power of the Cholas declined around the 12th century with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an end towards the end of the 13th century. Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. Chola literature, mostly written in Tamil, is the literature created during the period of Chola reign in South India between the ninth and the thirteenth ^[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. ^[7][8] They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola government during the imperial period ( 850 &ndash 1200  CE was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness

Contents 1 Origins 1.1 Etymology of Chola 2 History 2.1 Early Cholas 2.2 Interregnum 2.3 Medieval Cholas 2.4 Chalukya Cholas 3 Government and society 3.1 Chola country 3.2 Nature of government 3.3 Local government 3.4 Foreign trade 3.5 Chola society 4 Cultural contributions 4.1 Art 4.2 Literature 4.3 Religion 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External Links

Origins

There is very little information available regarding the origin of the Chola Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 300 BCE and 600 CE Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage to their dynasty. Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C

Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. Uttama Chola ascended the Chola throne c 970 CE succeeding Parantaka Chola II. Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 300 BCE and 600 CE 150 CE)^[11] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could be the name of an ancient clan. The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan ^[12][13]

On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. One of the most important sources of history in the Indian subcontinent are the royal records of grants engraved on copper-plates ( tamra-shasan or tamra-patra; The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period. ^[14] There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greek Periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities ^[15] Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81–96) and contains very little information of the Chola country. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death ^[16] Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca ^[17] Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants. The Mahavamsa, ("Great Chronicle " is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island ^[18] Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent and erected by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in ^[19][20][21]

Etymology of Chola

The word Chola is derived from the Tamil word Sora or Chora. ^[22] Numerous inscriptions confirm that the name of the Dynasty was Chora or Sora but pronounced as Chola. ^[23] The shift from 'r' to 'l' has also been validated and Sora or Chora in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda in Telugu. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical ^[24]

History

List of Chola kings Early Cholas Ilamcetcenni  ·   Karikala Chola Nedunkilli  ·   Nalankilli Killivalavan  ·   Kopperuncholan Kocengannan  ·   Perunarkilli Interregnum (c.200–848)

Medieval Cholas Vijayalaya Chola 848–871(?) Aditya I 871–907 Parantaka Chola I 907–950 Gandaraditya 950–957 Arinjaya Chola 956–957 Sundara Chola 957–970 Uttama Chola 970–985 Rajaraja Chola I 985–1014 Rajendra Chola I 1012–1044 Rajadhiraja Chola 1018–1054 Rajendra Chola II 1051–1063 Virarajendra Chola 1063–1070 Athirajendra Chola 1067–1070 Later Cholas Kulothunga Chola I 1070–1120 Vikrama Chola 1118–1135 Kulothunga Chola II 1133–1150 Rajaraja Chola II 1146–1163 Rajadhiraja Chola II 1163–1178 Kulothunga Chola III 1178–1218 Rajaraja Chola III 1216–1256 Rajendra Chola III 1246–1279

Chola society Chola government Chola military Chola art  ·   Chola literature Solesvara Temples Poompuhar  ·   Urayur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Thanjavur  ·   Telugu Cholas edit

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C Ilamcetcenni (இளம்சேட்சென்னி was a Chola king during the Sangam age in South India. Karikala Chola ( Tamil: கரிகால சோழன்) was the greatest among the early Chola kings of the Sangam age in South India Nedunkilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. Nalankilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. Killivalavan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature, and of a period close to that of Nedunkilli and Nalankilli. Kopperuncholan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. Kocengannan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. Perunarkilli was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c Aditya I ( Tamil:முதலாம் ஆதித்த சோழன் (c Parantaka Chola I (முதலாம் பராந்தக சோழன் (907–955 ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years Gandaraditya Chola ( Tamil:கண்டராதித்ய சோழன் succeeded his father Parantaka I and became the Chola king c Arinjaya Chola succeeded Gandaraditya Chola c 956 CE Arinjaya was the third son of Parantaka I and the younger brother of Gandarditya Parantaka Chola II (957 ce – 973 ce ruled for approximately twelve years Uttama Chola ascended the Chola throne c 970 CE succeeding Parantaka Chola II. Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. Rajadhiraja Chola I ( Tamil: முதலாம் இராஜாதிராஜ சோழன்) (1018 – 1054 C Rajendra Chola II ( 1054 – 1063 CE reigned as the Chola king succeeding his brother Rajadhiraja Chola. Virarajendra Chola (1063 – 1070 CE it must be said at the outset was one of the most under-rated Chola Kings mainly because of the fact that a major part of his life was Athirajendra Chola ( 1070 CE reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his brother Virarajendra Chola. The Chalukya Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C Kulothunga Chola reigned from 1070 until 1120 CE over the vast Chola Empire Vikrama Chola succeeded his father the famous Kulothunga Chola I to the Chola throne in 1120 C Kulothunga Chola II was a 12th century king of the Chola Dynasty, among the Tamil people in the region that now primarily in southern India. Rajaraja Chola II succeeded his father Kulothunga Chola II to the Chola throne in 1150 C Rajadhiraja Chola II ( 1163 – 1178 CE reigned as the Chola king succeeding Rajaraja Chola II. Kulothunga Chola III ruled the Chola empire after Rajadhiraja Chola II. Rajaraja Chola III succeeded Kulothunga Chola III on the Chola throne in July 1216 CE Rajendra Chola III was the son of Rajaraja Chola III who came to the Chola throne in 1246 CE The Chola government during the imperial period ( 850 &ndash 1200  CE was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness The Chola military was a well organised and effective fighting force during medieval times The period of the imperial Cholas (c 850 CE - 1250 CE was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of the Dravidian art and architecture Chola literature, mostly written in Tamil, is the literature created during the period of Chola reign in South India between the ninth and the thirteenth The Solesvara temples were in honor of the Chola kings who were believers in Shiva, the Hindu god Puhar (பூம்புகார் (also known as Poompuhar) is a town in Nagapattinam district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Urayur (Currently in Tiruchirappalli was the capital of the Early Cholas from before the first century CE until the dynasty was revived by Vijayalaya Chola c Gangaikonda Cholapuram ( Tamil:) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after Many Telugu Choda kingdoms ruled over many regions including the cities on the banks of Krishna River in the period between the seventh and the thirteenth century The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India who captured Thanjavur during c 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Chalukya Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century. The Chalukya Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C ^[25]

Early Cholas

Main article: Early Cholas

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era. ^[11] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history. ^[26]

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. ^[27][28] The Cholas were looked upon as descended from the sun. ^[29][30] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. In Hinduism, Agastya (अगस्त्य in Devanagari, pronounced /ə gəs tyə/ is a legendary Vedic sage or Rishi. ^[31][32]

Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known to have existed, who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola^[33][34][35] and Kocengannan. Karikala Chola ( Tamil: கரிகால சோழன்) was the greatest among the early Chola kings of the Sangam age in South India Kocengannan was one of the Early Cholas mentioned in Sangam Literature. ^[36] There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of about the same period. ^[37][38] Urayur (now in/part-of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital. Urayur (Currently in Tiruchirappalli was the capital of the Early Cholas from before the first century CE until the dynasty was revived by Vijayalaya Chola c WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tiruchirappalli ( Tamil: தி௫ச்சிராப்பள்ளி also spelled Tiruchirapalli ^[29] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. Puhar (பூம்புகார் (also known as Poompuhar) is a town in Nagapattinam district in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. ^[39] The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Elara, invaded the island around 235 BCE. The Mahavamsa, ("Great Chronicle " is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. Elara (c 235 BCE - 161 BCE also known as Elalan, or Élaezha Chola, was a Tamil king who ruled Sri Lanka from c ^[29][40]

Interregnum

There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country. Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery ^[41] An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. Identification Kalabhras The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult ^[42][43][44] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century. ^[34][45] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century. ^[46]

Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that came over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved What is certain is that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,^[35][47] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals. ^[2][48] The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation. ^[49] Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'. The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central ^[50][51] Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence hailed from this geographical area. ^[52][53]

Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. ^[52] These Telugu Cholas (or Chodas) traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. Many Telugu Choda kingdoms ruled over many regions including the cities on the banks of Krishna River in the period between the seventh and the thirteenth century However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early Cholas. ^[54] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas. ^[55] The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya', in an apparent reference to the Telugu Chodas. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Kanchipuram, Kanchi, or Kancheepuram is a city and a Municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of ^[46][56][57]

Medieval Cholas

Main article: Medieval Cholas

While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during the period between the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an abundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the Chalukya Chola dynasties. A large number of stone inscriptions by the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing the history of Cholas of that period. The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central ^[58][59] Around 850, Vijayalaya rose from obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas,^[60] captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after ^[61][62]

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period. The Brihadishwara Temple ( Tamil: ta பெருவுடையார் கோவில் also known as Rajarajeswaram, at Thanjavur is a brilliant Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after ^[1] Through their leadership and vision, kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. Rajaraja Chola I (இராஜராஜ சோழன் is one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE "Rajendra Chola" redirects here For Rajendra Chola II see Rajendra Chola II. ^[2][3] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. This article is about the river Godavari in India. For other uses see Godavari (disambiguation The Godavari ( Marathi language:गोदावरी ^[63] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. ^[4] Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago. Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Malay Archipelago. ^[5][6]

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka,^[64][65] Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The Sinhalese are the main ethnic group of Sri Lanka. They speak Sinhala, an Indo-Aryan language and number approximately 15 million people with the Lanka ( Sanskrit: लंका lankā means "island" is the name given in Hindu mythology to the island fortress capital of the ^[66] This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra River as the boundary between the two empires. The Tungabhadra River is a sacred river in Southern India that flows through the states of Karnataka and part of Andhra Pradesh to merge with the larger ^[67] However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Vengi kingdom extended from the Godavari River in the north to Mount MahendraGiri in the southeast and to just south of the banks of River Krishna in the ^[68]

Chalukya Cholas

Main article: Chalukya Cholas

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. The Chalukya Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C Origin of Eastern Chalukyas Pulakesin II (608–644 CE the greatest Badami Chalukya king conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the ^[69] Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya. ^[70] Rajendra Chola's daughter was also married to an eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. Rajaraja Narendra (1018 – 1061 CE was the Eastern Chalukya king of the Vengi kingdom in South India. ^[71]

Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Athirajendra Chola ( 1070 CE reigned for a very short period of few months as the Chola king succeeding his brother Virarajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola reigned from 1070 until 1120 CE over the vast Chola Empire ^[67][72][71]

The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola; however, the decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. Vikrama Chola succeeded his father the famous Kulothunga Chola I to the Chola throne in 1120 C ^[73] The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South Vikramaditya VI (1076 – 1126 CE became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Mysore (maɪˈsɔɚ in English; renamed to Mysuru|ಮೈಸೂರು) (ಮೈಸೂರು is the second largest city in the state of Karnataka, India The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga Vishnuvardhana ( Kannada: ವಿಷ್ಣುವರ್ಧನ (1108-1152 CE was a king of the Hoysala Empire in present day Indian state of Karnataka In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. ^[74][75]

The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his son Rajendra Chola III, experienced continuous trouble. Rajaraja Chola III succeeded Kulothunga Chola III on the Chola throne in July 1216 CE Rajendra Chola III was the son of Rajaraja Chola III who came to the Chola throne in 1246 CE One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime. Kadava was the name of a South Indian ruling dynasty who ruled parts of the Tamil country during the thirteenth and the fourteenth century CE Kopperunchinga I (reigned c 1216-1242 CE was a Kadava chieftain who played a major role in the political affairs of the Tamil country ^[76][77] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the north. ^[73][78] The local feudatories were also becoming sufficiently confident to challenge the central Chola authority. The Cholas were exposed to assaults from within and without. ^[68] The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power. ^[73] The Hoysalas in the west threatened the existence of the Chola empire. ^[79] Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the two powers in turn. ^[79] At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. ^[80] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. ^[81][82] The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century. ^[77][82]

Government and society

Main article: Chola Government

Chola country

According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District and the Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu. The Chola government during the imperial period ( 850 &ndash 1200  CE was marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness Tiruchirapalli District (also known as Tiruchchirapalli District / Trichy District is located along the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu India Thanjavur District is one of the 30 districts of the state of Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The Kaveri River ( Kannada: ಕಾವೇರಿ ನದಿ Tamil: காவிரி ஆறு also spelled Cauvery in English The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part. Adiperukku is a unique Tamil festival celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month of Adi (mid July

Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. ^[29] Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas. ^[17] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. ^[83] Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta. ^[84][85]

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Kumbakonam (கும்பகோணம் is a town and a Municipality in the Thanjavur district ^[29] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance. Gangaikonda Cholapuram ( Tamil:) was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra Chola I, the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola, the great ^[86] The later Chola kings moved around their capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram their regional capitals. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Chidambaram is a Municipality and taluk ( Tehsil) headquarters in the Cuddalore district Madurai

Nature of government

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time, brought under a single government,^[87] when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. ^[88] However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier time and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors. ^[89]

Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier. ^[2][63][4] Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to the Chola Empire and, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to the banks of the Godavari river. ^[90]

Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals, in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent dictator. ^[91] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. ^[92] A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice.

The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. ^[7][93] The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community. ^[7][94]

Local government

Every village was a self-governing unit. ^[95] A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. ^[95][96][97] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. ^[98] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period. ^[99]

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. ^[96] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property. ^[100]

Foreign trade

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. ^[102] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. ^[103][104] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. ^{[105][106][107]} The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading partners. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Malay Archipelago. ^[108]

Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,^{[109][110][111]} and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ^[112] It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'. ^[113]

A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country. Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470000 km² and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two ^[104] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period. ^[110]

Chola society

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. ^[114] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign. ^[115] However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities. ^[116][117]

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,^[118] although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses. ^[119] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit education was restricted to the Brahmins. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning, which were supported by the government. ^{[120][121][122]}

Cultural contributions

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter ^[123] In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. ^[124][125] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus ^[126]

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Kedah ( Jawi: قدح pop 1778188 is a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. ^[127] Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. Hinduism in Southeast Asia influenced the former Champa civilization in southern parts of Central Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer ^[128][129]

Art

Main article: Chola Art

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. The period of the imperial Cholas (c 850 CE - 1250 CE was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of the Dravidian art and architecture ^[130] Aditya I built a number of Siva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. Aditya I ( Tamil:முதலாம் ஆதித்த சோழன் (c Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva These temples were not on a large scale until the end of the 10th century. ^{[124][131][132]}

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. ^[133] The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The Brihadishwara Temple ( Tamil: ta பெருவுடையார் கோவில் also known as Rajarajeswaram, at Thanjavur is a brilliant The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. ^[134][135]

The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. ^[136][137] Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. ^[130][138]

The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples. Airateswara Temple is a Hindu temple of Dravidian architecture located in the town of Darasuram, near Kumbakonam in the South Indian state of Darasuram is a small town near Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu state in southern India. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 The Great Living Chola Temples are temples built during the Chola rule in the south of India. ^[139]

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. ^{[140][141][142]} Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Saivaite saints. For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific Lakshmi or Mahalakshmi (pronunciation; Sanskrit: लक्ष्मी lakṣmī) is the Hindu Goddess of Wealth ^[130] Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11^th and the 12^th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. Nataraja /nɐtɐrɑdʒɐ/ ( The Lord (or King of Dance) Tamil கூத்தன் is the dancing posture of the Hindu god Shiva, who performs his ^[143][144]

Literature

Main article: Chola literature

The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. The Ulster Museum is located in the Botanical Gardens in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and has around 8000 square metres of public display space featuring Chola literature, mostly written in Tamil, is the literature created during the period of Chola reign in South India between the ninth and the thirteenth ^[3] Chola inscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have been lost. ^[145]

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional literature. ^[146] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. ^[147] Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors. Civaka-cintamani (transliterated with innumerable variations is a classical Tamil language epic poem Tirutakkatevar was a Tamil poet who wrote Jivaka-chintamani, one of the five greatest epics of Tamil literature ( Manimegalai Silapadhigaaram, Valayaapathi ^{[148][149][150]} The art of Tirutakkatevar is marked by all the qualities of great poetry. ^[151] It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavataram. Ramavataram ( இராமாவதாரம்) popularly referred to as Kamba Ramayanam (கம்ப இராமாயணம் is a Tamil epic ^[152]

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. Kulothunga Chola III ruled the Chola empire after Rajadhiraja Chola II. ^[153] His Ramavatharam (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a great epic in Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic: Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country. Ramavataram ( இராமாவதாரம்) popularly referred to as Kamba Ramayanam (கம்ப இராமாயணம் is a Tamil epic Valmiki ( Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि vālmīki) (ca 400 BCE northern India is celebrated as the poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki Kosala ( Sanskrit: कोशल was an ancient Indian region corresponding roughly in area with the region of Oudh in the present day Uttar Pradesh ^{[150][154][155]}

Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field. ^{[155][156][157]} The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors. ^{[152][155][156][158]} Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king. ^[159]

The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10^th century. Shaivism, also spelled "Saivism" names the oldest of the four sects of Hinduism. ^[160][161] However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the later Chola period, possibly because of the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Chalukya Chola monarchs. Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or its associated avatars principally as Rama and ^[162]

Religion

In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus The Metropolitan Museum of Art is an art museum located on the eastern edge of Central Park, along what is known as Museum Mile in New York City, Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Even the early Cholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola’s faith in the Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country. ^[163] Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint. ^[36]

Later Cholas were also staunch Saivites,^[164] although there was a sense of toleration towards other sects and religions. ^[165] Parantaka I and Sundara Chola endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu. Parantaka Chola I (முதலாம் பராந்தக சோழன் (907–955 ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years Parantaka Chola II (957 ce – 973 ce ruled for approximately twelve years Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva ^[166] Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists, and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara (a Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya Sailendra king. Chudamani Vihara was a Buddhist vihara (monastery in Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu, India. ^{[167][168][169][28]}

During the period of Chalukya Cholas, there were instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites,^[170] especially towards Ramanuja, the leader of the Vaishnavites. Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or its associated avatars principally as Rama and Ramanuja ( traditionally 1017&ndash1137 also known as Ramanujacharya, was a Theologian, Philosopher, and Scriptural Exegete. ^[171] This intolerance led to persecution and Ramanuja went into exile in the Chalukya country. ^[165][172] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Saivite whose devotion bordered on fanaticism, is reported to have removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram. Kulothunga Chola II was a 12th century king of the Chola Dynasty, among the Tamil people in the region that now primarily in southern India. ^{[173][174][175]}

In popular culture

The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to produce literary and artistic creations during the last several decades. ^[176] These works of popular literature have helped continue the memory of the great Cholas in the minds of the Tamil people. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy. Ponniyin Selvan ( Tamil: பொன்னியின் செல்வன், "The Son of Ponni " is a famous 2400 page Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Kalki (கல்கி was the pen name of R Krishnamurthy (ரா ^[177] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola. ^[178] Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Uttama Chola ascended the Chola throne c 970 CE succeeding Parantaka Chola II. Kalki had cleverly utilised the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Sundara Chola. ^[179] This book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid 1950s. ^[180] The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest. ^[181]

Kalki perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier historical romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of an imaginary Chola prince Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. Parthiban Kanavu (பார்த்திபன் கனவு - Parthiban's dream) is a famous Tamil novel written by Kalki Krishnamurthy Narasimhavarman I ( Tamil: முதலாம் நரசிம்மவர்மன் was one of the most famous Pallava kings who ruled South India The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortune. ^[178] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.

Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. Sandilyan (சாண்டில்யன் is a Tamil author recognised for influencing Tamil literature to a degree comparable to Kalki Krishnamurthy It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kumudam is a Tamil language weekly magazines published in Chennai, India The group also publishes other Tamil magazines including Kumudam Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, after he was denied the throne that was rightfully his. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in the early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola. Yavana Rani (Greek Queen Yavana means Greek is a Tamil language Historical novel written by Sandilyan. ^[182] More recently, Balakumaran wrote the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. Balakumaran (b 5th July 1946) is a famous Tamil writer author of over 150 novels 100 short stories and dialogue/screenplay writer for over 14 films Udayar is Tamil novel written by Balakumaran. It is written in six volumes and is a sequel to Ponniyin Selvan depicting Rajaraja Chola ^[183]

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of this play titled Rajaraja Cholan. Sivaji Ganesan (born Viluppuram Chinnaiahpillai Ganesan, October 1, 1927 - July 21, 2001) was a legendary Indian Rajaraja Chozhan was a Tamil movie about the life of the Chola king Rajaraja Chola. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill. This article is about the Board game. For a description of the world's history see History of the world. Avalon Hill was a game company that specialized in Wargames and strategic Board games.

See also

• History of Tamil Nadu
• Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in Malaysia

Notes

References

External Links

• UNESCO World Heritage sites - Chola temples
• Art of Cholas
• Chola coins
• Chola coins of Sri Lanka

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