- For the landmark in Birmingham, see Chinese Pagoda. Originally a landmark literally meant a Geographic Feature used by explorers and Birmingham ( ˈbɜːmɪŋəm Ber -ming-um The Chinese Pagoda is a Landmark in Birmingham, England. It is a stone carving of a Chinese pagoda, carved in Fujian, China
Chinese Pagodas (Chinese: 塔; pinyin: Tǎ) are a traditional part of Chinese architecture, introduced from India along with Buddhism as protective structures for Buddhist relics. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Chinese architecture refers to a style of Architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the centuries India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices [1] In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views which they offer, and many famous poems in Chinese history attest to the joy of scaling pagodas. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Ancient Buddhas would come to visit there.
Contents |
History
The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa, a tomb-like structure where sacred relics could be kept safe and venerated. A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered Tower with multiple Eaves common in China, Japan, Korea A stupa (from Sanskrit and Pāli: m स्तूप stūpa, literally meaning "heap" is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist [2] The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design.
The Chinese word for stupa, ta, is an abbreviated translation (from tapo) of the Sanskrit Stupa. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The origins of the word Pagoda are obscure. In modern usage, the word Stupa and Pagoda refer to the same thing. [3]
The Pagoda's original purpose was to house relics and sacred writings. [4] This purpose was popularized due to the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out, distribute, and extol Buddhist relics. A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. [3]
The earliest base-structure type for Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base. By the 10th century the Chinese began to build octagonal-base pagoda towers. Regular octagons A regular octagon is an octagon whose sides are all the same length and whose internal angles are all the same size The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is the Liaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian, Hebei province, completed in the year 1055 AD under Emperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). The Liaodi Pagoda ( of Kaiyuan Monastery Dingzhou, Hebei Province China is the tallest existing pre-modern Chinese pagoda, built in the ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. Emperor Renzong ( May 30, 1010 &ndash April 30, 1063) was the fourth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China. The pagoda was built of brick and stone and has the classic gradual tiered eaves marking each story, and has a section of its walls partially open at one side, which allows one to view the interior of the pagoda, the inner column shaped as another pagoda inside, and the thickness of the pagoda's walls. [5] Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100 m (330 ft) tall wooden pagoda of Chang'an, built by Emperor Yang of Sui, but this tower no longer stands. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. Background Yang Guang was born in 569 during the reign of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. [6] The Liaodi Pagoda is the tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing, yet in April of 2007 a new wooden pagoda at the Tianning Temple of Changzhou was opened to the public; this pagoda is now the tallest in China, standing at 154 m (505 ft). The Pagoda of Tianning Temple is a modern Chinese pagoda of Changzhou, Jiangsu, China. Changzhou ( formerly known as Chang-chou Changchow is a Prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China.
Symbolism and geomancy
Han iconography is noticeable in Chinese Pagoda architecture. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images The image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the abhaya mudra is also noticeable in some Chinese pagodas, while Buddhist iconography can be observed in the symbolism embodied in the pagoda. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder A mudrā ( Sanskrit: मुद्रा lit "seal" is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. [7] In an article on Buddhist elements in Han art, Wu Hung suggests that in these tombs, Buddhist iconography was so well incorporated into native Chinese traditions that a unique system of symbolism had been developed. [8]
The late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) scholar-official Zhang Tao—a local magistrate of Sheh County in Jiangsu—had a pagoda built precariously at the summit of a large hill, a placement which he believed would influence the success of young students taking the examinations for a civil service degree. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to ( Postal map spelling: Kiangsu) is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis [9] When a pagoda of Yihuang County in Fuzhou collapsed in 1210 during the Song Dynasty, all the local inhabitants believed that the unfortunate event was directly correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations for official degrees, the prerequisite for appointment in civil service. ( Foochow Romanized: Hók-ciŭ EFEO: Fou-Tcheou also seen as Foochow, Fuchow, Fuh-chau or Hokchew in earlier Western The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis [10] The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural, cosmic favor. [10]
Construction Materials
Wood
From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (~25-589) pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. Year 25 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events By Place Europe October 17 — The Adige River overflows its banks flooding the church of St Wooden pagodas are highly resistant to earthquakes, however many have burnt down, and wood is also prone to both natural rot and insect infestation.
Examples of wooden pagodas:
- White Horse Pagoda at White Horse Temple, Luoyang. White Horse Temple ( also White Horse Ministry) was the first Buddhist temple in China, established under the patronage of Emperor Ming in the White Horse Temple ( also White Horse Ministry) was the first Buddhist temple in China, established under the patronage of Emperor Ming in the Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. China's first pagoda.
- Futuci Pagoda in Xuzhou, built in the Three Kingdoms period (~220-265). Futuci Pagoda is a wooden pagoda that was built in Xuzhou during the Three Kingdoms period ( 220 - 280) in China. Administration The Prefecture-level city of Xuzhou administers eleven county-level divisions, including five districts, two county-level The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of
- Many of the pagodas in Stories About Buddhist Temples in Luoyang, a Northern Wei text, were wooden. Stories About Buddhist Temples in Luoyang ( Chinese 洛阳??记 Pinyin luoyang qie lan ji) is a Northern Wei Dynasty Chinese The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or
The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction in this period. The famous Tang Dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote:
- 480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties,
- uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Du Mu ( 803—852 was a leading realistic Chinese poet of the late Tang Dynasty.
The oldest extant fully-wooden pagoda standing in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi Province, built in the 11th century during the Song Dynasty/Liao Dynasty (refer to Architecture section in Song Dynasty). The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple ( of Ying County Shanxi province China, is a wooden Chinese pagoda built in 1056 during the ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria The architecture of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 was based upon the accomplishments of its predecessors much like every subsequent dynastic period of China. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Transition to brick and stone
During the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386-618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Events By Place Roman Empire Theodosius I concludes peace with Persia, dividing Armenia between them Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty (reigned 581-604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Background Yang Jian's clan was from Hongnong Commandery (弘農 roughly modern Sanmenxia, Henan) The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Events By Place Europe Tauric Chersonesus is besieged by the Gokturks. Events By Place Ancient Japan Prince Shotoku issues a Seventeen-article constitution. Only the Songyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of stone in 523 AD. The Songyue Pagoda, constructed in 523 CE is located at the Songyue Monastery on Mount Song, in Henan province China.
Brick
The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40 m tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country, Henan. The Songyue Pagoda, constructed in 523 CE is located at the Songyue Monastery on Mount Song, in Henan province China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country [11] This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries. Events By Place Byzantine Empire Justinian, later Byzantine emperor, marries Theodora. The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or [11] Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang Dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as a spire crowing the top. A spire is a tapering conical or pyramidal structure on the top of a building particularly a church Tower. Its walls are 2. 5 m thick, with a groundfloor diameter of 10. 6 m in length. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui Dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The Guoqing Temple ( of Tiantai Mountain, Zhejiang province China is a Buddhist Temple originally built in 598 AD during the
Stone
The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui Dynasty. The Four Gates Pagoda ( is a Sui Dynasty stone Chinese pagoda located in central Shandong Province, China. ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. For the telephone number 611 see 6-1-1. Births Deaths Ceolwulf of Wessex Map-bms611 The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.
Brick and stone
One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first) Jin Dynasty (265-420), by Wang Jun of Xiangyang. The Iron Pagoda (鐵塔 of Youguo Temple (佑國寺 Kaifeng City Henan province is a Buddhist Chinese pagoda built in 1049 AD Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus repels the invasion of the Goths in the Balkans. Events By Place Europe Pharamond leads the Franks across the Rhine. Wang Jun, Imperial Protector of Yizhou and the Prancing Dragon General was a Jin Dynasty (265–420 general during the Three Kingdoms period in ancient Xiangyang ( Traditional Chinese: 襄陽 Simplified Chinese: 襄阳 Pinyin: Xiāngyáng was a Chinese city famous for the Siege of Xiangyang However, it is now destroyed.
Brick and stone went on to dominate Tang, Song, Liao and Jin Dynasty pagoda construction. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty An example of such would be the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang Dynasty. Giant Wild Goose Pagoda or Big Wild Goose Pagoda ( is a Buddhist pagoda located in southern Xi'an, Shaanxi province China. The Porcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history. The Porcelain Tower (or Porcelain Pagoda) of Nanjing ( also known as Bao'ensi (meaning "Temple of Gratitude" is a historical archaeological
De-emphasis over time
Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of the White Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until the Sui and Tang dynasties. White Horse Temple ( also White Horse Ministry) was the first Buddhist temple in China, established under the patronage of Emperor Ming in the The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang, Dàoxuān wrote a Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple. Dàoxuān ( Chinese:道宣 Wade-Giles: Tao-hsüan CE 596-667 was the Chinese Buddhist monk who wrote both the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction is a Chinese language text written by Dàoxuān in the early Tang Dynasty.
The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.
In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the Chan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Events By Place Europe Edgar the Peaceable is crowned King of England. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. The seven parts - the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities - completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by the White Horse Temple in 67. White Horse Temple ( also White Horse Ministry) was the first Buddhist temple in China, established under the patronage of Emperor Ming in the Year 67 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the two Ming Dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda in Jingyang of Shaanxi Province. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess
A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing's Yonghe Temple, which was the residence of Yongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. The Yonghe Temple ( Manchu: Hūwaliyasun hūwaliyaka gung; Mongolian: Найралт Найрамдах Сүм (Nairalt Nairamdakh Suum;) The Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝 → yōngzhèngdì) (born Yinzhen (胤禛 → yìnzhēn) December 13, 1678 - October 8 It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735. Year 1735 ( MDCCXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a
Styles of eras
Han Dynasty
Examples of Han Dynasty era tower architecture before Buddhist influence and before the development of the Chinese pagoda:
 Eastern Han Dynasty pottery tomb model, 1st–2nd century |
 Mortuary Chamber Pediment, Embossed Terracotta, Western Han Dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD) |
Sui and Tang
Pagodas built during the Sui and Tang Dynasty usually had a square base, with a few exceptions such as the Daqin Pagoda:
 Four Gates Pagoda, built in 611. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Four Gates Pagoda ( is a Sui Dynasty stone Chinese pagoda located in central Shandong Province, China. |
 The Daqin Pagoda, built in 640. Daqin Pagoda (大秦塔 in Chang'an, Shaanxi Province located by Louguan temple China, is the remnant of the earliest surviving Christian |
 The Small Wild Goose Pagoda, built in 709. The Small Wild Goose Pagoda, sometimes Little Wild Goose Pagoda ( is one of two significant pagodas in the city of Xi'an, China, the site of |
 The Three Pagodas, 9th and 10th centuries. The Three Pagodas are an ensemble of three independent pagodas arranged on the corners of a symmetric triangle near the town of Dali, Yunnan province, China |
Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan
Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:
 The Huqiu Tower, built in 961. The Yunyan Pagoda or Tiger Hill Pagoda, and the Yunyan Temple Tower. |
 Longhua Pagoda, built in 977. The Longhua Temple ( literally " Lustre of the Dragon Temple " is a Buddhist Temple dedicated to the Maitreya |
 Pagoda of Fogong Temple, built in 1056. The Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple ( of Ying County Shanxi province China, is a wooden Chinese pagoda built in 1056 during the |
 Pizhi Pagoda, built by 1063. The Pizhi Pagoda ( is an 11th century Chinese pagoda located at Lingyan Temple, Changqing near Jinan, Shandong province China. |
 Pagoda of Tianning Temple in Beijing, 1120. For the modern pagoda in Changzhou, see Pagoda of Tianning Temple (Changzhou The Pagoda of Tianning Temple ( located in Guang'anmen |
 The Beisi Pagoda, built in 1162 |
 The Chengling Pagoda, built in 1189. The Beisi Pagoda ( or North Temple Pagoda is a Chinese pagoda located at Bao'en Temple in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province China. Zhengding ( is a county in Hebei Province approximately 260 Kilometers south of Beijing, China. |
 Pagoda of Bailin Temple, built by 1330. The Pagoda of Bailin Temple ( or) located in Zhaoxian County Hebei Province China is an octagonal-based brick Chinese pagoda built in 1330 during the |
Ming and Qing
Pagodas in the Ming and Qing Dynasties generally inherited the styles of previous eras, although there were some minor variations:
 Zhenjue Temple, built in 1473. The Zhen Jue Temple (真觉寺 located near the Beijing Zoo, lies on the north bank of the Changhe River near the White Stone Bridge in Haidian District of Beijing |
 The Pagoda of Cishou Temple, built in 1576. The Pagoda of Cishou Temple ( originally known as Yong'anwanshou Pagoda ( is a 16th century stone and brick Chinese pagoda located in the Buddhist Cishou |
 The Fragrant Hills Pagoda, built in 1780. The Fragrant Hills Pagoda ( of the Fragrant Hills in Beijing, China was built in 1780 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735&ndash1796 |
See also
Notes
- ^ World Encyclopedia. Chinese architecture refers to a style of Architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the centuries The architecture of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 was based upon the accomplishments of its predecessors much like every subsequent dynastic period of China. Oxford University Press. Published 1980.
- ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press
- ^ a b The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press . ISBN 0691096767. pg 31
- ^ A World History of Architecture By Michael W. Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse. Published 2003. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071417516.
- ^ Steinhardt, 387.
- ^ Benn, 62.
- ^ The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691096767. page 83
- ^ The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture By John Kieschnick. Published 2003. Princeton University Press . ISBN 0691096767. page 84
- ^ Brook, 7.
- ^ a b Hymes, 30.
- ^ a b Steinhardt, 383.
References
- Benn, Charles (2002). China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
- Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0
- Hymes, Robert P. (1986). Statesmen and Gentlemen: The Elite of Fu-Chou, Chiang-Hsi, in Northern and Southern Sung. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521306310.
- Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman (1997). Liao Architecture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
External links
- The Bei-Hai (Beijing), The Flower Pagoda (Guangdong), The Great Gander Pagoda (Xian), The White Pagoda (Liaoyang)
- With a chapter about China and paragraphs about many pagoda’s
- The Songyue Pagoda at China.org.cn
- Structure of Pagodas, including the underground palace, base, body and steeple, at China.org.cn
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