Original Staunton chess pieces by Nathaniel Cook from 1849

Around 1200, rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes rendered the game essentially as it is known today. (1 removed from infobox|worldchampion = 1843-1851 (Unofficial (2 Mark Weeks has material and sources at http//mark_weeks Nathaniel Cook was the designer of a set of Chess figures which is now the standard set ^[13] These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in Italy^[15] and in Spain. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. ^[16] Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities. This made the queen the most powerful piece; consequently modern chess was referred to as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess". ^[17] These new rules quickly spread throughout western Europe, with the exception of the rules about stalemate, which were finalized in the early nineteenth century. ^[18]

This was also the time when chess started to develop a corpus of theory. The oldest preserved printed chess book, Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497. Luis Ramirez de Lucena (c 1465 &ndash c1530 was a leading Spanish Chess player Geography The city lies on a mountain by the Tormes River which is crossed by a bridge 150 m long built on 26 arches fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while ^[16] Lucena and later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco or Spanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of openings and started to analyze simple endgames. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Pedro Damiano (in Portuguese, Pedro Damião; Damiano is the Italian form much like the Latin Damianus) was a Portuguese The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging Giovanni Leonardo di Bona or Giovanni Leonardo da Cutri (both given names can be seen also in the reversed order Leonardo Giovanni) known as Il Puttino Giulio Cesare Polerio (1548 Lanciano - 1612 Rome) was an Italian Chess player Gioachino Greco (1600 &ndash c 1634 was an Italian Chess player and writer Rodrigo ( Ruy) López de Segura (c 1540 &ndash 1580 was a Spanish priest and later Bishop in Segura whose book Libro de In Chess, the endgame (or end game or ending) refers to the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board

François-André Danican Philidor, eighteenth century French chess Master

In the eighteenth century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. François-André Danican Philidor ( September 7, 1726 - August 31, 1795) was a French Chess player and Composer This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais who won a famous series of matches with the British master Alexander McDonnell in 1834. François-André Danican Philidor ( September 7, 1726 - August 31, 1795) was a French Chess player and Composer Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais (1795 - 1840 was a French Chess master, possibly the strongest player in the early 19th century The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Alexander McDonnell (1798-1835 was an Irish Chess master who contested a series of six matches with the world’s leading player Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais ^[19] Centers of chess life in this period were coffee houses in big European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris^[20] and Simpson's Divan in London. A coffeehouse ( French / Portuguese: café; Spanish: cafetería; Italian: caffè The Café de la Régence in Paris was an important European centre of Chess in the 18th and 19th centuries Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Simpson's-in-the-Strand is one of London 's most renowned traditional English restaurants and banqueting suites London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. ^[21]

As the nineteenth century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books and chess journals appeared. A chess club is a Club formed for the purpose of playing Chess. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow. ^[22] Chess problems became a regular part of nineteenth century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. A chess problem, also called a chess composition, is a puzzle set by somebody using Chess pieces on a Chess board that presents the solver with Bernhard Horwitz (1807-1885 was a German English Chess master and chess writer Josef Kling ( March 19 1811 – December 1 1876) was a German Chess master and Chess composer. For people with a similar name see Sam Lloyd. Samuel Loyd ( January 31, 1841 &ndash April 10, 1911 In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. Tassilo Baron von Heydebrand und der Lasa (known in English as "Baron von der Lasa" 17 October 1818, Berlin &ndash 27 July Paul Rudolf (or Rudolph von Bilguer ( 21 September 1815 &ndash 16 September 1840) was a German Chess master and chess Handbuch des Schachspiels ( Handbook of Chess, often simply called the Handbuch) is a Chess book first published in 1843 by Tassilo

Birth of a sport (1850–1945)

The "Immortal Game", Anderssen-Kieseritzky, 1851

The first modern chess tournament was held in London in 1851 and won, surprisingly, by German Adolf Anderssen, relatively unknown at the time. The Immortal Game was a Chess game played on 21 June 1851 by Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky. London 1851 was the first international Chess tournament The tournament was conceived and organised by English player Howard Staunton, and marked the first time that Karl Ernst Adolf Anderssen ( July 6, 1818 - March 13, 1879) was a German Chess master. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master and his brilliant, energetic — but from today's viewpoint strategically shallow — attacking style became typical for the time. ^[23] Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal game or Morphy's Opera game were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art. The Immortal Game was a Chess game played on 21 June 1851 by Adolf Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky. Disambiguation Morphy redirects here For the fictional character nicknamed Morphy see King Morpheus. The Opera Game was a famous Chess game played in 1858 between the American Chess master Paul Morphy and two strong amateurs the ^[24]

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Disambiguation Morphy redirects here For the fictional character nicknamed Morphy see King Morpheus. Chess prodigies are children who play Chess so well that they are able to beat Masters and even Grandmasters often at a very young age Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks. ^[25] Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position. Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. Wilhelm (later William) Steinitz ( May 17, 1836 – August 12, 1900) was an Austrian - American ^[26] In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Johannes Hermann Zukertort ( 7 September 1842 &ndash 20 June 1888) was a leading Chess master of German - Polish See also Development of the World Chess Championship The World Chess Championship is played to determine the World Champion in the Board game Chess Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions. For other persons named Lasker see Lasker#People with the surname Lasker. ^[27]

Wilhelm Steinitz, the first World Chess Champion

It took a prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. Wilhelm (later William) Steinitz ( May 17, 1836 – August 12, 1900) was an Austrian - American The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la His successor was Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regaining it two years later. Alexander Alexandrovich Alekhine (alʲɛkˈsandr̠ alʲɛkˈsandr̠ovʲiʨ aˈlʲɛxin Russian Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Але́хин) (October The Dutch people ( Dutch:) are the dominant Ethnic group of the Netherlands. Machgielis (Max Euwe (last name is pronounced /øwə/ ( May 20, 1901 – November 26, 1981) was a Dutch Chess Grandmaster ^[28]

Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. Hypermodernism is a school of Chess thought which advocates controlling the centre of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting the opponent Aron Nimzowitsch ( Ārons Ņimcovičs; born Aron Niemzowitsch and also known as Nimzovich) (7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935 was a Latvian Richard Réti ( 28 May, 1889, Pezinok (now Slovakia) &ndash 6 June, 1929, Prague) was an Austrian They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack. ^[29]

Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim. The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong Chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. Siegbert Tarrasch ( March 5, 1862 &ndash February 17, 1934) was one of the strongest Chess players and most influential chess Frank James Marshall ( August 10 1877 &ndash November 9 1944) was the U ^[30] This tradition was continued by the World Chess Federation (FIDE), founded in 1924 in Paris. Fédération Internationale des Échecs or World Chess Federation is an international organization that connects the various national Chess federations around the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city In 1927, Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold it was Czech-English master Vera Menchik. Czechs (Češi ˈt͡ʃɛʃɪ archaic Čechové) are a western Slavic people of Central Europe, living predominantly in the Czech Republic The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English Vera Menchik (Věra Menčíková Вера Францевна Менчик ( 16 February[[ 906]]&mdash 27 June[[ 944]] was a British - Czech chess ^[31]

Post-war era (1945 and later)

World Champions José Raúl Capablanca (left) and Emanuel Lasker in 1925

After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have, since then, controlled the title. For other persons named Lasker see Lasker#People with the surname Lasker. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Mikhail Moiseyevich Botvinnik (mʲixaˈiɫ̺ mʌiˈs̺ʲɛjɛvʲiʧʲ bʌt̺ˈvʲin̺n̻ʲik Михаи́л Моисе́евич Ботви́нник) ( &ndash May A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975). Robert James "Bobby" Fischer ( March 9 1943 – January 17 2008) was an American -born Chess Grandmaster ^[32]

In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. ^[33] FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "Interzonal tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". Interzonal chess tournaments were tournaments organized by FIDE, the World Chess Federation The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A candidate is the prospective recipient of an Award or honor or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position for example to be elected A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle. ^[33]

Current World Champion Viswanathan Anand

The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and clearly won the world championship match. Viswanathan Anand (ʋiɕˈʋəˌnɑˌt̪ʰən ɑnˌənd̪ விசுவநாதன் ஆனந்த் (born December 11, 1969) is an Indian The World Chess Championship 1972 match between challenger Bobby Fischer and defending champion Boris Spassky in Laugardalshöll, Reykjavík World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Robert James "Bobby" Fischer ( March 9 1943 – January 17 2008) was an American -born Chess Grandmaster In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov (Анатолий Евгеньевич Карпов born May 23, 1951) is a Russian Chess grandmaster Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes. Viktor Lvovich Korchnoi (also Korchnoy Kortchnoy Kortschnoi etc ^[34]

Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, Garry Kasparov. Garry Kasparov (Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров) (born as Garry Kimovich Weinstein on April 13 1963 in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back. ^[35]

In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). Nigel David Short MBE (born June 1, 1965 in Leigh, Lancashire) is often regarded as the strongest British Chess The Professional Chess Association (PCA which existed between 1993 and 1996 was a rival organisation to FIDE, the international Chess organization From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia. Vladimir Borisovich Kramnik (Влади́мир Бори́сович Кра́мник (born June 25, 1975) is a Russian Chess grandmaster

The FIDE World Chess Championship 2006 reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov and became the undisputed World Chess Champion. The World Chess Championship 2006 was a Chess match between Classical World Chess Champion Vladimir Kramnik, and FIDE World Chess Champion Veselin Topalov (vɛsɛ'lin to'pɑlof Веселин Топалов (born 15 March 1975) is a Bulgarian Chess grandmaster ^[36] In September 2007, Viswanathan Anand became the next champion by winning a championship tournament. Viswanathan Anand (ʋiɕˈʋəˌnɑˌt̪ʰən ɑnˌənd̪ விசுவநாதன் ஆனந்த் (born December 11, 1969) is an Indian ^[37]

Place in culture

Noble chess players, Germany, c. 1320

Main article: Chess in the arts and literature

Pre-modern

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game". Chess plays a central or symbolic role in the following creations of arts and literature: In Literature A Game of Chess The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime Chess or the King's Game (Das Schach- oder Königsspiel is a book on Chess. ^[38] Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes," says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Baldasare Castiglione, count of Novellata ( December 15, 1478 &ndash February 28, 1529) was an Italian Courtier, The Book of the Courtier (Il Cortegiano was written by Baldassare Castiglione over the course of many years beginning in 1508 and published in 1528 just Castiglione explains it further:

And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency. ^[39]

Beautiful chess sets used by the aristocracy of the time are mostly lost, but some of the surviving examples, like the twelfth century Lewis chessmen, are of high artistic quality. The Lewis Chessmen (or Uig Chessmen, named after their find-site constitute some of the few complete Medieval Chess sets that have survived until today

At the same time, chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings An example is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican monk Jacobus de Cessolis circa 1300. The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is Jacobus de Cessolis (Jacopo da Cessole (c 1250 &ndash c 1322 was an Italian author of the most famous morality book on Chess in the Middle Ages. The popular work was translated into many other languages (first printed edition at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in English. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States ^[40] Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces. ^[41]

Two kings and two queens from the Lewis chessmen at the British Museum. The Lewis Chessmen (or Uig Chessmen, named after their find-site constitute some of the few complete Medieval Chess sets that have survived until today The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London.

The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte. ^[42]

On the other side, political and religious authorities in many places forbade chess as frivolous or as a sort of gambling.

Known in the circles of clerics, students and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the thirteenth century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina…^[43]

Honoré Daumier, The Chess Players

Modern

To the Age of Enlightenment, chess appeared mainly for self-improvement. Carmina Burana (ˈkarmɪna buˈraːna also known as the Burana Codex, is a Manuscript collection found in 1803 in the Bavarian monastery of Honoré Daumier ( February 26, 1808 &ndash February 10, 1879) was a French Printmaker, Caricaturist, The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote:

"The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: 1st, Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action… 2nd, Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: - the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations… 3rd, Caution, not to make our moves too hastily…"^[44]

Through the Looking-Glass, Red King snoring, illustration by John Tenniel

With these or similar hopes, chess is taught to children in schools around the world today and used in armies to train minds of cadets and officers. Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There ( 1871) is a work of Children's literature by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson Sir John Tenniel (28 February 1820 &ndash 25 February 1914 was an English Illustrator. ^[45] Many schools hold chess clubs and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. In addition, many countries have chess federations, such as the United States Chess Federation, that hold tournaments regularly in addition to FIDE.

Moreover, chess is often depicted in the arts; significant works, where chess plays a key role, range from Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess over Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig or Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense. The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. A Game at Chess is a comic Satirical play by Thomas Middleton, first staged in August Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There ( 1871) is a work of Children's literature by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson The Royal Game (Or Chess Story; Schachnovelle in the original German) is a Novella by Austrian author Stefan The Defense, also titled The Luzhin Defense, is a Russian Novel written by Vladimir Nabokov during his emigration in Chess is also important in films like Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal or Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players. For the Biblical concept see Seven seals. For the Rakim album see The Seventh Seal (Rakim album. Shatranj Ke Khilari ( The Chess Players) is a 1977 film by Bengali director Satyajit Ray, based on the short story of the same name by Munshi ^[46]

Chess is also present in the contemporary popular culture. For example, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter plays "Wizard's Chess" while the characters of Star Trek prefer "Tri-Dimensional Chess" and the hero of Searching for Bobby Fischer struggles against adopting the aggressive and misanthropic views of a real chess Grandmaster. Harry Potter is a series of seven Fantasy novels written by British author J In the Fictional Harry Potter series many magical objects exist for the use of the characters. Not to be confused with chess software with a 3D rendering Three-dimensional chess, or 3D chess, are examples of Chess variants Searching for Bobby Fischer is an acclaimed 1993 Film based on the life of prodigy Chess player Joshua Waitzkin, played ^[47]. Chess has also been used as the core theme of a musical, Chess, by Tim Rice, Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson. Musical theatre is a form of Theatre combining Music, Songs spoken Dialogue and Dance. Chess is a musical with Lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson, formerly of ABBA Sir Timothy Miles Bindon Rice (born 10 November 1944 is an English Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Tony Award and Grammy Award Björn Kristian Ulvaeus, bjœɳ ɵlˈveɵs (born April 25 1945 is a Swedish Musician, Composer, a former member of the Swedish musical group Göran Bror Benny Andersson (born in Stockholm, Sweden on December 16, 1946) is a Swedish Musician, Composer

Notation for recording moves

Algebraic chess notation

Main article: Chess notation

Chess games and positions are recorded using a special notation, most often algebraic chess notation. Chess notation is the term for several systems that have developed to record either the moves made during a game of Chess or the position of the pieces on a chess board Algebraic chess notation is used to record and describe the moves in a game of Chess. ^[48] Abbreviated (or short) algebraic notation generally records moves in the format abbreviation of the piece moved - file where it moved - rank where it moved, e. g. Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank (that is, to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved, e. g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter P indicating a pawn is not used, so that e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4".

If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destination square, e. g. Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5) or exd (pawn on e-file captures something on the d-file).

The "Scholar's mate"

If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move,^[49]for example e1Q or e1=Q. In Chess, scholar's mate is the Checkmate which occurs after the moves 1 Castling is indicated by the special notations 0-0 for kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be indicated by "#" (occasionally "++", although this is sometimes used for a double check instead). In Chess, a double check is a check delivered by two pieces at the same time At the end of the game, "1-0" means "White won", "0-1" means "Black won" and "½-½" indicates a draw.

Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. When annotating Chess games commentators frequently use Question marks and Exclamation points to denote a move as bad or good For example ! indicates a good move, !! an excellent move, ? a mistake, ?? a blunder, !? an interesting move that may not be best or ?! a dubious move, but not easily refuted.

For example, one variant of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate, animated in the picture to the right, can be recorded:

1. e4 e5
2. Qh5?! Nc6
3. Bc4 Nf6??
4. Qxf7# 1-0

Chess composition

Richard Réti
Ostrauer Morgenzeitung 4 December 1921

White to play and draw

One of the most famous chess studies ever. In Chess, scholar's mate is the Checkmate which occurs after the moves 1 Richard Réti ( 28 May, 1889, Pezinok (now Slovakia) &ndash 6 June, 1929, Prague) was an Austrian Ostrava ( pronounced, Ostrau Ostrawa is the third largest city in the Czech Republic, however it is the second largest urban agglomeration after Prague "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. It seems impossible to catch the advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. The solution is diagonal advance, bringing the king to both pawns at the same time: 1. A diagonal can refer to a line joining two nonconsecutive vertices of a Polygon or Polyhedron, or in contexts any upward or downward sloping line Kg7! h4 2. Kf6 Kb6 (or 2. …h3 3. Ke7 and the white king can support its pawn) 3. Ke5!! (now the white king comes just in time to his pawn, or catches the black one) 3. …h3 4. Kd6 draw.

Main article: Chess problem

Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (these problems themselves are sometimes also called chess compositions). A chess problem, also called a chess composition, is a puzzle set by somebody using Chess pieces on a Chess board that presents the solver with A person who creates such problems is known as a chess composer. A chess composer is a person who creates endgame studies or Chess problems He usually specializes in a particular Genre, e ^[50]

Most chess problems exhibit the following features:

• The position is composed, that is, it has not been taken from an actual game, but has been invented for the specific purpose of providing a problem.
• There is a specific stipulation, that is, a goal to be achieved; for example, to checkmate black within a specified number of moves.
• There is a theme (or combination of themes) that the problem has been composed to illustrate: chess problems typically instantiate particular ideas. Many of these themes have their own names, often by persons who used them first, for example Novotny or Lacny theme. The Novotny (also often spelled as Nowotny even in non- German sources is a device found in Chess problems named after its discoverer Antonín Novotný The Lacny or Lacny cycle is a Chess problem theme named after Ľudovít Lačný, the first person to demonstrate the idea in 1949
• The problem exhibits economy in its construction: no greater force is employed than that required to guarantee that the problem's intended solution is indeed a solution and that it is the problem's only solution.
• The problem has aesthetic value. Problems are experienced not only as puzzles but as objects of beauty. This is closely related to the fact that problems are organized to exhibit clear ideas in as economical a manner as possible.

There are many types of chess problems. The two most important are:

• Directmates: white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of moves against any defense. These are often referred to as "mate in n" - for example "mate in three" (a three-mover).
• Studies: orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw. An endgame study, or just study, is a composed Chess position — that is one that has been made up rather than one from an actual game — presented as a sort of Almost all studies are endgame positions. In Chess, the endgame (or end game or ending) refers to the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board

Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments (or tourneys) exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems.

Competitive play

Organization of competitions

Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments and congresses. A congress is a formal meeting of representatives from different countries (or by extension Constituent States, or independent organisations (such as different Trade Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Fédération Internationale des Échecs or World Chess Federation is an international organization that connects the various national Chess federations around the Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation), which in turn is a member of FIDE. The United States Chess Federation ( USCF) is a non-profit organization the governing Chess organization within the United States, and one of the federations The English Chess Federation (ECF is the governing Chess organisation in England and is one of the federations of the FIDE. FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games; chess does have its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event. The Olympic Games is an international Multi-sport event established for both summer and winter games The Chess Olympiad is a Biennial Chess tournament in which teams from all over the world compete against each other An estimated 605 million people worldwide know how to play chess, and 7. 5 million are members of national chess federations, which exist in 160 countries worldwide. This makes chess one of the most popular sports worldwide. ^[51]

The current World Chess Champion is Viswanathan Anand of India. Viswanathan Anand (ʋiɕˈʋəˌnɑˌt̪ʰən ɑnˌənd̪ விசுவநாதன் ஆனந்த் (born December 11, 1969) is an Indian India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ^[52] The reigning Women's World Champion is Xu Yuhua from China. Xu Yuhua may refer to Xu Yuhua (chess player, women's world chess champion from 2006 to 2008 Xu Yuhua (judo, competitor at the 2008 China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National However, the world's highest rated female player, Judit Polgar, has never participated in the Women's World Chess Championship, instead preferring to compete with the leading men and maintaining a ranking among the top 20 male players. Judit Polgár (born July 23, 1976) is a Hungarian Chess grandmaster.

Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship and the National Chess Championships. The World Junior Chess Championship is an under-20 Chess tournament (players must have been under 20 years old on 1 January in the year of competition organized The European Individual Chess Championship is a chess tournament organized by the European Chess Union. Chess is played all over the world and is organised in different chess federations Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players and these include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters and Wijk aan Zee's Corus tournament. The annual Linares chess tournament, usually played around the end of February takes its name from the city of Linares in the Jaén province of Andalusia The Melody Amber chess tournament (officially the Amber Rapid and Blindfold Chess Tournament) is an annual invitation-only event for some of the world's best players from The Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting is an elite Chess tournament held every summer in Dortmund, Germany. M-tel Masters is an annual super-GM Chess tournament held since 2005 in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, sponsored The Corus chess tournament takes place every year usually in January in a small town called Wijk aan Zee, part of the larger Beverwijk in the province of North

Regular team chess events include the aforementioned Chess Olympiad and the European Team Championship. The Chess Olympiad is a Biennial Chess tournament in which teams from all over the world compete against each other The European Team Championship ( often abbreviated in texts and games databases as ETC) is an international team chess event eligible for the participation The 37th Chess Olympiad was held 2006 in Turin, Italy; Armenia won the gold in the unrestricted event, and Ukraine took the top medal for the women. The 37th Chess Olympiad, comprising an open and women's tournament and the General assembly of the Fédération Internationale des Échecs, took place Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships are both team and individual events. The World Chess Solving Championship ( WCSC) is an annual competition in the solving of Chess problems organised by FIDE via the Permanent Commission Correspondence chess is Chess played by various forms of long-distance correspondence usually through a Correspondence chess server, through email or by

Besides these prestigious competitions, there are thousands of other chess tournaments, matches and festivals held around the world every year, which cater to players of all levels, from beginners to experts.

Titles and rankings

Grandmaster Garry Kasparov, former World Chess Champion

The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE:^[53]

• Grandmaster (shortened as GM, sometimes International Grandmaster or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chess masters. The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong Chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. Garry Kasparov (Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров) (born as Garry Kimovich Weinstein on April 13 1963 in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet See also Development of the World Chess Championship The World Chess Championship is played to determine the World Champion in the Board game Chess The title Grandmaster is awarded to extremely strong Chess masters by the world chess organization FIDE. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title on a player, the player must have an Elo chess rating (see below) of at least 2500 at one time and three favorable results (called norms) in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are also other milestones a player can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship.
• International Master (shortened as IM). The title International Master is awarded to outstanding Chess players by the world chess organization FIDE. The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400.
• FIDE Master (shortened as FM). FIDE Master (FM is a title awarded by the world Chess governing body Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE Rating of 2300 or more.
• Candidate Master (shortened as CM). The Candidate Master ( CM) title is awarded by the world Chess governing body Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE Similar to FM, but with a FIDE Rating of at least 2200.

All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), are also available. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and most of the top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title. Nona Gaprindashvili (ნონა გაფრინდაშვილი born May 3, 1941) is a Georgian Chess player the sixth Women's ^[54]

International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems, and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). Moreover, national chess organizations may also award titles, usually to the advanced players still under the level needed for international titles; an example is the Chess expert title used in the United States. Chess expert is a rating and title given by the United States Chess Federation.

In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF and national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF was founded in 1951 as a new appearance of the ICCA (International Correspondence Chess Association which was founded in 1945 as The Elo rating system is a method for calculating the relative skill levels of players in two-player games such as Chess and Go. Arpad Emrick Elo (born Élő Árpád Imre, August 25, 1903 in Egyházaskesző, Hungary &ndash November 5, 1992 Elo is a statistical system based on assumption that the chess performance of each player in their games is a random variable. Statistical models are used in Applied statistics. Three notions are sufficient to describe all statistical models Arpad Elo thought of a player's true skill as the average of that player's performance random variable, and showed how to estimate the average from results of player's games. The US Chess Federation implemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than older systems; it was adopted by FIDE in 1970. The United States Chess Federation ( USCF) is a non-profit organization the governing Chess organization within the United States, and one of the federations ^[55]

The highest ever FIDE rating was 2851, which Garry Kasparov had on the July 1999 and January 2000 lists. ^[56] In the most recent list (January 2008), the highest rated players are the current world champion Viswanathan Anand of India and the former one Vladimir Kramnik of Russia with a rating of 2799. ^[57]

Mathematics and computers

Main articles: Computer chess and List of mathematicians who studied chess

Mathematicians Euler, de Moivre and Vandermonde studied the knight's tour. The idea of creating a Chess -playing machine dates back to the eighteenth century Chess and Mathematics have been pursued intellectually for centuries by many researchers and scientists especially Mathematicians Naturally the "Moivre" redirects here for the French commune see Moivre Marne. Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde ( 28 February 1735 – 1 January 1796) was a French Musician and Chemist who The Knight's Tour is a mathematical problem involving a knight on a Chessboard.

Chess is interesting from the mathematical point of view. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess were known of for hundreds of years. Combinatorics is a branch of Pure mathematics concerning the study of discrete (and usually finite) objects Topology ( Greek topos, "place" and logos, "study" is the branch of Mathematics that studies the properties of In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used it as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory. Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo ( July 27 1871, Berlin, German Empire – May 21 1953, Freiburg im Breisgau Game theory is a branch of Applied mathematics that is used in the Social sciences (most notably Economics) Biology, Engineering, ^[58]

The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be between 10⁴³ and 10⁵⁰, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10¹²³. Combinatorial game theory has several ways of measuring game complexity. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10¹²⁰, a number known as the Shannon number. Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30 1916 – February 24 2001 an American Electronic engineer and Mathematician, is "the father of Information The Shannon number, 10120 is an estimated lower bound on the Game-tree complexity of Chess, calculated by information theorist ^[59] Typically an average position has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or as many as 218.

The most important mathematical challenge of chess is the development of algorithms which can play chess. In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation The idea of creating a chess playing machine dates to the eighteenth century; around 1769, the chess playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. The Turk or Automaton Chess Player was a Chess -playing machine constructed in the late 18th century and exhibited from 1770 for over 84 years by various A hoax is a deliberate attempt to Dupe, Deceive or trick an audience into believing or accepting that something is real when in fact it is not or that ^[60] Serious trials based on automatons, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. El Ajedrecista (The Chess Player was an Automaton built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres y Quevedo.

Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts and computer engineers have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. Computer engineering (or Computer Systems Engineering) encompasses broad areas of both Electrical engineering and Computer science. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon. He wrote:

The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern computers. ^[61]

1990s chess-playing computer

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970. The Association for Computing Machinery, or ACM, was founded in 1947 as the world's first scientific and educational Computing society World Computer Chess Championship ( WCCC) is an annual event where computer Chess engines compete against each other CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship. Chess was a pioneering chess program from the 1970s authored by Larry Atkin and David Slate at Northwestern University. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs, for example Rybka or Hydra, have become extremely strong. A chess engine is a Computer program that can play the game of Chess. Rybka is a computer Chess engine created by International Master Vasik Rajlich. Hydra is a chess machine designed by a team with Dr Christian "Chrilly" Donninger, Dr Garry Kasparov, then ranked number one in the world, lost a match against IBM's Deep Blue in 1997. Garry Kasparov (Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров) (born as Garry Kimovich Weinstein on April 13 1963 in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet International Business Machines Corporation abbreviated IBM and nicknamed "Big Blue", is a multinational Computer Technology Deep Blue is a Chess - playing Computer developed by IBM. On 11 May 1997, the machine won a six-game match by two wins to ^[62] Nevertheless, from the point of view of artificial intelligence, chess-playing programs are relatively simple: they essentially explore huge numbers of potential future moves by both players and apply an evaluation function to the resulting positions, an approach described as "brute force" because it relies on the sheer speed of the computer. An evaluation function, also known as a heuristic evaluation function or static evaluation function, is a function used by game-playing programs to estimate the value In Computer science, brute-force search or exhaustive search, also known as generate and test, is a trivial but very general problem-solving technique

With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers also help players to learn chess and prepare for matches. Additionally, Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents all over the world. An Internet chess server ( ICS) is an external server that provides the facility to play discuss and view Chess over the Internet. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have also raised concerns regarding cheating during games, most notably the "bathroom controversy" during the 2006 World Championship. The World Chess Championship 2006 was a Chess match between Classical World Chess Champion Vladimir Kramnik, and FIDE World Chess Champion

Psychology

There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. ^[63][64][65] Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. Alfred Binet ( July 8, 1857 &ndash October 18, 1911) French Psychologist and Inventor of the first usable ^[66][67] Adriaan de Groot, in his doctoral thesis, showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. Adrianus Dingeman (Adriaan de Groot ( Santpoort, 26 October 1914 &ndash Schiermonnikoog, 14 August 2006 was a Dutch Chess master and Psychologist ^[68] According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. De Groot also showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. Memorization ability alone does not account for this skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about half a dozen positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. ^[69]

More recent research has focused on the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill, gender differences, and computational models of chess expertise. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain Blindfold chess is a way to play Chess, whereby play is conducted without the players having sight of the positions of the pieces or any physical contact with them Personality psychology studies personality based on theories of individual differences Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities In addition, the role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to a lot of research recently. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise, like master in chess. ^[70] However, more recent research indicates that factors other than practice are important. For example, Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players start playing chess earlier, that they are more likely to be left-handed, and that they are more likely to be born in late winter and early spring. ^[71]

There are also some attempts to use the game of chess as mental training. There are efforts to use the game of chess as a tool to aid the intellectual development of young people

Variants

Main article: Chess variant

Glinski's hexagonal chess, a chess variant popular in 1930s

Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with a different board, special fairy pieces or different rules. A chess variant is a Game derived from related to or similar to Chess in at least one respect The term hexagonal chess designates a group of Chess variants played on hexagonal boards A fairy chess piece (often in shortened form fairy piece) or unorthodox chess piece (or in shortened form unorthodox piece) is a Chess piece There are more than two thousand published chess variants, the most popular being xiangqi in China and shogi in Japan. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National or Japanese chess (literally "generals' chess" ˈʃoʊɡiː in English is the most popular of a family of Chess variants native to Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[72][73]

Chess variants can be divided into:

• Direct predecessors of chess, chaturanga and shatranj. This article is about two-handed ancient game Chaturanga For the four-handed version played with dice see Chaturaji. Shatranj is an old form of Chess, which has been popular in Persia and the Middle East for almost 1000 years
• Traditional national or regional chess variants like xiangqi, shogi, janggi and makruk, which share common predecessors with Western chess. or Japanese chess (literally "generals' chess" ˈʃoʊɡiː in English is the most popular of a family of Chess variants native to Japan. Janggi is the Korean name for a strategic Board game widespread in Korea Makruk ( Thai: หมากรุก (or Thai chess) is a Board game descended from the 6th century Indian game of Chaturanga
• Modern variants of chess, such as Chess960, where the initial position is selected randomly before each game. Chess960, or Fischer Random Chess (also written Fischerrandom and Fischerandom) is a Chess variant produced by the late former Chess960, or Fischer Random Chess (also written Fischerrandom and Fischerandom) is a Chess variant produced by the late former This random positioning makes it almost impossible to prepare the opening play in advance. ^[74]

See also

• List of chess topics
• List of chess world championship matches
• List of chess players
• List of famous chess games
• List of strong chess tournaments
• Chess terminology
• Chess Olympiad
• Chess around the world
• Chess in early literature
• Comparing top chess players throughout history

Notes

1. ^ The rules of chess. This is a list of articles related to Chess. The articles are in three broad groups and are alphabetical within the group The following is a list of World Chess Championship matches The winner of each match is listed first This list of chess players depicts men and women who are primarily known as Chess players and have an article on the English Wikipedia This is a list of notable Chess games sorted chronologically 1788: Bowdler - Conway London 1788 Thomas Bowdler offers the first example of the This article depicts many of the strongest international Chess tournaments in history This page explains commonly used terms in Chess in alphabetical order The Chess Olympiad is a Biennial Chess tournament in which teams from all over the world compete against each other Chess is played all over the world and is organised in different chess federations One of the most common ways for Chess historians to trace when the Board game Chess entered a country is to look at the literature of that country Retrieved on 2008-01-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental
2. ^ World Chess Federation. FIDE Laws of Chess. Retrieved 30 November 2006. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
3. ^ Tarrasch vs Euwe on chessgames.com. (Java needed)
4. ^ Harding (2003), p. 1–7
5. ^ Harding (2003), p. 138ff
6. ^ Harding (2003), p. 8ff
7. ^ Harding (2003), p. 70ff
8. ^ Collins, Sam (2005). Understanding the Chess Openings. Gambit Publications. ISBN 1-904600-28-X.  
9. ^ Tarrasch, Siegbert (1987). Siegbert Tarrasch ( March 5, 1862 &ndash February 17, 1934) was one of the strongest Chess players and most influential chess The Game of Chess. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-25447-X.  
10. ^ Harding (2003), p. 32–151
11. ^ Harding (2003), p. 187ff
12. ^ Murray, H.J.R. (1913). Harold James Ruthven Murray ( June 24, 1868 – May 16, 1955) was a prominent Chess historian, and the first to publish the theory that A History of Chess. Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-936317-01-9.  
13. ^ ^{a b} Hooper and Whyld, 144-45 (first edition)
14. ^ Li, David H. (1998). David H Li is an author and expert on Chinese history and chess. The Genealogy of Chess. Premier Pub. Co. ISBN 0-9637852-2-2.  
15. ^ Davidson (1981), p. 13–17
16. ^ ^{a b} Calvo, Ricardo. Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess. Retrieved 10 December 2006
17. ^ An analysis from the feminist perspective: Weissberger, Barbara F. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. (2004). Isabel Rules: constructing queenship, wielding power. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4164-1.   P. 152ff
18. ^ See History of the stalemate rule. Stalemate is a situation in Chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check but has no legal moves
19. ^ Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnai. Chessgames. com. Retrieved 30 November 2006. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
20. ^ Metzner, Paul (1998). Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self-Promotion in Paris during the Age of Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20684-3.   Online version
21. ^ Bird, Henry Edward. Henry Edward Bird ( July 14, 1830 – April 11, 1908) was an English Chess player and chess writer Chess History and Reminiscences. Retrieved 10 December 2006
22. ^ London Chess Club. Chessgames. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. com. Retrieved 30 November 2006. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
23. ^ World Title Matches and Tournaments - Chess history. worldchessnetwork. com
24. ^ Burgess, Graham, Nunn, John and Emms, John (1998). The Mammoth Book of the World's Greatest Chess Games. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-0587-6.  , p. 14.
25. ^ Shibut, Macon (2004). Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43574-1.  
26. ^ Steinitz, William and Landsberger, Kurt (2002). The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of the First World Chess Champion. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1193-7.  
27. ^ Kasparov (1983a)
28. ^ Kasparov 1983b
29. ^ Fine (1952)
30. ^ This is stated for example in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p. 223) by Anne Sunnucks, but this is also disputed by Edward Winter (chess historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and 5152. Patricia Anne Sunnucks (born 21 February 1927) is an author and the several time British Women's Chess Champion (1957 1958 1964 Edward Winter is a British Journalist, Archivist, Historian, Collector and Author about the game of Chess.
31. ^ Menchik at ChessGames.com. Retrieved 11 December 2006
32. ^ Kasparov 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2006
33. ^ ^{a b} Chess History. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-01-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental
34. ^ Kasparov 2003a, 2006
35. ^ Keene, Raymond (1993). Gary Kasparov's Best Games. B. T. Batsford Ltd. . ISBN 0-7134-7296-0.  , p. 16.
36. ^ Kramnik at ChessGames.com. Retrieved 13 December 2006
37. ^ "Viswanathan Anand regains world chess title", Reuters, 2007-09-30. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. This article is primarily about Reuters prior to its 2008 merger with Thomson Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life  
38. ^ Vale, Malcolm (2001). The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270–1380. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926993-9.   Pp. 170–199
39. ^ The Second Book of the Courtier. Translated by Sir Thomas Hoby (1561) as edited by Walter Raleigh for David Nutt, Publisher, London, 1900. Online at University of Oregon. Retrieved 21 Feb 2008
40. ^ The Introduction of Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press: The First Book printed in English, from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Vol II. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. Originally published in 1907 - 1921, the 18 volumes include 303 chapters and more than 11000 pages (1907) Online at bartleby. com. Retrieved 12 December 2006
41. ^ Adams, Jenny (2006). Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian Power Play: The Literature and Politics of Chess in the Late Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3944-X.  
42. ^ Caxton, William. The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 9 December 2006
43. ^ Camina Burana. Bibliotheca Augustana. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city Retrieved 2 November 2006
44. ^ Franklin, Benjamin. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 The Morals of Chess. metajedrez. com. ar. Retrieved 2 December 2006
45. ^ National Scholastic Chess Foundation. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Retrieved 10 December 2006
46. ^ Ranjan Das: Shatranj Ke Khiladi (1977), analysis at upperstall. com. Retrieved 21 Feb 2008
47. ^ Eamonn O'Neill: Josh WaitzkinsPDF Retrieved 20 December 2007
48. ^ FIDE Laws of Chess, App. E. Retrieved 11 December 2006
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51. ^ Chess in the Olympics. Retrieved 19 December 2006
52. ^ [http://www.usatoday.com/sports/2007-09-30-anand_N.htm India's Anand seizes chess title
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54. ^ Current FIDE lists of top players with their titles are online at fide.com. Retrieved 11 December 2006
55. ^ FIDE Handbook The working of the FIDE Rating System. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved 13 December 2006
56. ^ European Chess Union. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved 11 December 2006
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References

• Davidson, Henry A. (1949, 1981). A Short History of Chess. McKay. ISBN 0-679-14550-8.  
• Harding, Tim (2003). Better Chess for Average Players. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-29029-8.  
• Hooper, David and Whyld, Kenneth (1992). David Vincent Hooper ( 31 August 1915 - May 1998 born in Reigate, was a British Chess player and writer Kenneth Whyld ( March 6, 1926 - July 11, 2003) was a British Chess author and researcher best known as the co-author (with The Oxford Companion to Chess, Second edition. The Oxford Companion to Chess is a reference Book on Chess written by David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866164-9.   Reprint: (1996) ISBN 0-19-280049-3
• Kasparov, Garry (2003a). My Great Predecessors, part I. Everyman Chess. Everyman Chess is a major publisher of books and CDs about Chess. ISBN 1-85744-330-6.  
• Kasparov, Garry (2003b). My Great Predecessors, part II. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1-85744-342-X.  
• Kasparov, Garry (2004a). My Great Predecessors, part III. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1-85744-371-3.  
• Kasparov, Garry (2004b). My Great Predecessors, part IV. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1-85744-395-0.  
• Kasparov, Garry (2006). My Great Predecessors, part V. Everyman Chess. ISBN 1-85744-404-3.  
• Wilkinson, Charles K. (May, 1943). "Chessmen and Chess". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin New Series, Vol. 1, No. 9: 271–279. doi:10.2307/3257111. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  

Further reading

• Fine, Reuben (1983). Reuben Fine ( October 11 1914  &ndash March 26 1993) was one of the best Chess players in the world from the mid 1930s through The World's Great Chess Games. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24512-8.  
• Gobet, Fernand, de Voogt, Alex, & Retschitzki, Jean (2004). Moves in mind: The psychology of board games. Psychology Press. ISBN 1-84169-336-7.  
• Mason, James (1947). James Mason ( November 19, 1849 &ndash January 12, 1905) was a famous Chess player and writer The Art of Chess. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20463-4.   (see the included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess")
• Rizzitano, James (2004). Understanding Your Chess. Gambit Publications. ISBN 1-904600-07-7.  
• David Shenk (2006). The Immortal Game: A History of Chess. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51010-1.  
• Tarrasch, Siegbert (1994). Siegbert Tarrasch ( March 5, 1862 &ndash February 17, 1934) was one of the strongest Chess players and most influential chess The Game of Chess. Algebraic Edition. Hays Publishing. ISBN 1-880673-94-0.  

External links