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Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste.
Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. Roland ( Italian: Orlando or Rolando, Frankish: Hruodland, Dutch: Roeland, Spanish: Roldán An Oath of fealty, from the Latin fidelitas ( Faithfulness) is a pledge of Allegiance of one person to another Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his

The chansons de geste, Old French for "songs of heroic deeds [or heroic lineages]", are the epic poems that appear at the dawn of French literature. Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation This article is a general introduction to French literature For detailed information on French literature in specific historic periods see the separate historical articles in the The earliest known examples date from the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, nearly a hundred years before the emergence of the lyric poetry of the trouvères (troubadours) and the earliest verse romances. Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music Trouvère ( MWCD: /trü'ver trü'vər/ sometimes spelled trouveur, is the Northern French ( Langue d'oïl) form of the word Troubadour A troubadour ( IPA:, originally) was a composer and performer of Occitan Lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100&ndash1350 As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative

Contents

Subjects

Composed in Old French and apparently intended for oral performance by jongleurs, the chansons de geste narrate legendary incidents (sometimes based on real events) in the history of France during the eighth and ninth centuries, the age of Charles Martel, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, with emphasis on their conflicts with the Moors and Saracens. Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium minstrel was a medieval European Bard who performed songs whose lyrics told stories about distant places or about real or imaginary historical events This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. To these historical legends, fantasy is gradually added; giants, magic, and monsters increasingly appear among the foes along with Muslims. Fantasy is a Genre that uses magic and other Supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting The Mythology and Legends of many different Cultures include monsters of human appearance but prodigious size and strength Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and A monster is any of a large number of Legendary creatures which usually appear in Mythology, Legend, or Horror fiction. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. There is also an increasing dose of Eastern adventure, drawing on contemporary experiences in the Crusades; in addition, one series of chansons retells the events of the First Crusade and the first years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian Finally, in chansons of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the historical and military aspects wane, and the fantastic elements in the stories dominate.

The traditional subject matter of the chansons de geste became known as the Matter of France. The Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of Legendary history that springs from the Old French Medieval literature This distinguished them from romances concerned with the Matter of Britain, that is, King Arthur and his knights; and with the so-called Matter of Rome, covering the Trojan War, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the life of Julius Cæsar and some of his Imperial successors, who were given medieval makeovers as exemplars of chivalry. As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. According to the mediæval poet Jean Bodel, the Matter of Rome was the literary cycle made up of Greek and Roman mythology In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Chivalric order Chivalry is a term related to the Medieval institution of Knighthood. [1]

The poems contain a small and unvarying assortment of character types; the repertoire of valiant hero, brave traitor, shifty or cowardly traitor, Saracen giant, beautiful Saracen princess, and so forth is one that is easily exhausted. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. As the genre matured, fantasy elements were introduced. Some of the characters that were devised by the poets in this manner include the fairy Oberon, who made his literary debut in Huon de Bordeaux; and the magic horse Bayard, who first appears in Renaud de Montauban. A fairy (also fay, fey, fae, faerie; collectively wee folk, good folk, people of peace, fair Oberon, also Auberon, King of Shadows and Fairies, is best known as a character in William Shakespeare 's play A Midsummer Night's Dream Huon of Bordeaux is the title character of a 13th century French epic ( Chanson de geste) with romance elements The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. For more information on the racehorse see Bayardo (horse Bayard ("Bayard" is the French form in Italian he is Renaud de Montauban, (also spelled Renaut, Renault, Italian: Rinaldo di Montalbano, Dutch: Reinout van Montalba(en) was Quite soon an element of self-parody appears; even the august Charlemagne was not above gentle mockery in the Pèlerinage de Charlemagne. A parody (ˈpɛɹədiː US, [ˈpaɹədiː] UK) in contemporary usage is a work created to mock comment on or poke fun at an original work its subject Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne or Voyage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople ( Pilgrimage of Charlemagne or Charlemagne's Voyage

Origins

The origin of the chanson de geste as a form is much debated. The nineteenth century medievalist Gaston Paris, recognising that they drew on an oral epic tradition, identified this with narrative songs (sometimes called cantilenae) that are occasionally mentioned by contemporary authors in other genres. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Bruno Paulin Gaston Paris ( August 9, 1839 – March 5, 1903) known as Gaston Paris was a French writer and scholar " Il Cantilena " is the oldest known literary text in the Maltese language.

Such songs about important events were sometimes being sung very soon after the military events described. As a first example, a contemporary historian records that the names of those who fell at the very minor ambush at Roncesvalles were on everyone's lips sixty years after the event, indicating the growth of a legend quite out of proportion to the original incident -- a legend that would result, long afterwards, in the various versions of the Song of Roland that are now known. The Battle of Roncevaux Pass ( French and English spelling Roncesvalles in Spanish, Orreaga in Basque) was a The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland is the oldest remaining major work of French literature. [2] As a second example, there are references to contemporary songs on the subject of the First Crusade in two historical sources on that Crusade,[3] supporting the statement by Graindor of Brie, composer of the surviving Chanson d'Antioche, that he had drawn on the original work of the jongleur and participant Richard le Pèlerin. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing The Chanson d'Antioche is a Chanson de geste in 9000 lines of Alexandrines in stanzas called Laisses ' now known in a version The Spanish Cantar de Mio Cid shows that a comparable narrative tradition existed in Spain at the same period. The term Spanish literature refers to Literature written in the Spanish language, including literature composed in Spanish by writers not necessarily from El Cantar de Mio Cid is the oldest preserved Spanish epic poem ( epopeya)

Gaston Paris also believed that the early singers followed the courts of kings and military leaders, as did Norse skalds (lyric poets) and some Celtic bards, but the evidence on this is less conclusive. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well The skald was a member of a group of Poets whose courtly poetry (Icelandic dróttkvæði) is associated with the courts of Scandinavian and Icelandic Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2

Another school of thought, championed by Joseph Bédier, holds that the poems were the invention of the poets who wrote them. Joseph Bédier (b January 1 1864, Paris &ndash d August 29 1938, Le Grand-Serre was an important 20th century French Bédier further suggests that some of the stories were first invented by monks, who used them to advertise pilgrimage sites by connecting them not only with saints but also by legendary heroes of folklore. MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological Magical relics frequently appear in the tales. A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial This point of view has fewer proponents since the development of Oral theory; it is additionally problematic because monks were specifically forbidden to dabble in the literature of the jongleurs. Homeric scholarship is the study of Homeric epic, especially the two large surviving epics the Iliad and Odyssey.

Versification

Early chansons de geste are composed in ten-syllable lines grouped in assonanced stanzas (meaning that the last stressed vowel is the same in each line throughout the stanza, but the last consonant differs from line to line). Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within Phrases or Sentences, and together with Alliteration In Poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger Poem. In modern poetry the term is often equivalent with Strophe; in popular vocal music a stanza is These stanzas are typically called laisses. A laisse is a type of Stanza, of varying length found in Medieval French literature, specifically medieval French Epic poetry (the Chanson de Stanzas are of variable length. An example from the Chanson de Roland illustrates the technique. The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland is the oldest remaining major work of French literature. The assonance in this stanza is on e:

Desuz un pin, delez un eglanter
Un faldestoed i unt, fait tout d'or mer:
La siet li reis ki dulce France tient.
Blanche ad la barbe et tut flurit le chef,
Gent ad le cors et le cuntenant fier.
S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner.
Under a pine tree, by a rosebush,
there is a throne made entirely of gold.
There sits the king who rules sweet France;
his beard is white, with a full head of hair.
He is noble in carriage, and proud of bearing.
If anyone is looking for the King, he doesn't need to be pointed out.

Later chansons are composed in monorhyme stanzas, in which the last syllable of each line rhymes fully throughout the stanza. A second change is that each line now contains twelve syllables instead of ten. The following example is from the opening lines of Les Chétifs, a chanson in the Crusade cycle. The Crusade cycle is an Old French cycle of Chansons de geste concerning the First Crusade and its aftermath The rhyme is on ie:

Or s'en fuit Corbarans tos les plains de Surie,
N'enmaine que . ii. rois ens en sa conpaignie.
S'enporte Brohadas, fis Soudan de Persie;
En l'estor l'avoit mort a l'espee forbie
Li bons dus Godefrois a le chiere hardie
Tres devant Anthioce ens en la prairie.
So Corbaran escaped across the plains of Syria;
He took only two kings in his company.
He carried away Brohadas, son of the Sultan of Persia,
Who had been killed in the battle by the clean sword
Of the brave-spirited good duke Godfrey
Right in front of Antioch, down in the meadow.

Performance

The songs were recited (sometimes to casual audiences, sometimes possibly in a more formal setting) by jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the vielle, a mediæval fiddle played with a bow. The vielle is a European bowed Stringed instrument used in the Medieval period similar to a modern Violin but with a somewhat longer and deeper body Several manuscript texts include lines in which the jongleur demands attention, threatens to stop singing, promises to continue the next day, and asks for money or gifts. Since paper was extremely expensive and not all poets could read, it seems likely that even after the chansons had begun to be written down, many performances continued to depend on oral transmission. As an indication of the role played by orality in the tradition of the chanson de geste, lines and sometimes whole stanzas (especially in the earlier examples) are noticeably formulaic in nature, making it possible both for the poet to construct a poem in performance and for the audience to grasp a new theme with ease. Oral poetry is a form of Poetry that is transmitted orally and memorized or improvised rather than written down

The poems themselves

Approximately eighty chansons de geste survive, in manuscripts that date from the 12th to the 15th century. A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way Several popular chansons were written down more than once in varying forms. The earliest chansons are all (more or less) anonymous; many later ones have named authors.

About 1215 Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, in the introductory lines to his Girart de Vienne, subdivided the Matter of France, the usual subject area of the chansons de geste, into three cycles, which revolved around three main characters (see quotation at Matter of France). Literary cycles are groups of stories grouped around common figures often (though not necessarily based on mythical figures or loosely on historic ones The Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of Legendary history that springs from the Old French Medieval literature There are several other less formal lists of chansons, or of the legends they incorporate. One can be found in the fabliau entitled Des Deux Bordeors Ribauz, a humorous tale of the second half of the 13th century, in which a jongleur lists the stories he knows. The fabliau (plural fabliaux or "'fablieaux'" is a comic usually anonymous tale written by Jongleurs in northeast France circa the 13th [4] Another is included by the Catalan troubadour Guiraut de Cabrera in his humorous poem Ensenhamen, better known from its first words as "Cabra juglar": this is addressed to a juglar (jongleur) and purports to instruct him on the poems he ought to know but doesn't. An ensenhamen (meaning "instruction" or "teaching" ensenyament enseignement insegnamento was an Occitan didactic (often lyric) [5]

The listing below is arranged according to Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube's cycles, extended with two additional groupings and with a final list of chansons that fit into no cycle. There are numerous differences of opinion about the categorization of individual chansons.

The Geste du roi

The chief character is usually Charlemagne or one of his immediate successors. A pervasive theme is the King's role as champion of Christianity. This cycle contains the first of the chansons to be written down, the Chanson de Roland or "Song of Roland". The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland is the oldest remaining major work of French literature.

The Geste de Garin de Monglane

Main article: La Geste de Garin de Monglane

The central character is not Garin de Monglane but his supposed great-grandson, Guillaume d'Orange. La Geste de Garin de Monglane is the second cycle of the three great cycles of Chansons de geste created in the early days of the genre Garin de Monglane, or Montglane, the creation of Conrad von Stöffler in 1280 is a fictional Aristocrat who gives his name to the second cycle Saint William of Gellone (755-traditionally May 28, c 812 or 814 in his own day Guilhem, also known as Guillaume d'Orange, Guillaume Fierabrace These chansons deal with knights who were typically younger sons, not heirs, who seek land and glory through combat with the Infidel (in practice, Muslim) enemy. "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance.

The Geste de Doon de Mayence

Main article: Doon de Mayence

This cycle concerns traitors and rebels against royal authority. Doon de Mayence was a fictional Hero of the Old French chansons de geste, who gives his name to the third cycle of the In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation. In each case the revolt ends with the defeat of the rebels and their eventual repentance.

The Lorraine cycle

Main article: Garin le Loherain

This local cycle of epics of Lorraine traditional history, in the late form in which it is now known, includes details evidently drawn from Huon de Bordeaux and Ogier le Danois. The 12th century Chanson de geste of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary narratives left by the Trouvères '

The Crusade cycle

Main article: Crusade cycle

Not listed by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, this cycle deals with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. The 12th century Chanson de geste of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary narratives left by the Trouvères ' The Crusade cycle is an Old French cycle of Chansons de geste concerning the First Crusade and its aftermath The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing

Other chansons de geste

Legacy and adaptations

The chansons de geste created a body of mythology that lived on well after the creative force of the genre itself was spent. The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" The Italian epics of Torquato Tasso (Rinaldo), Orlando innamorato (1495) by Matteo Boiardo, and Orlando furioso by Ludovico Ariosto are all founded on the legends of the paladins of Charlemagne that first appeared in the chansons de geste. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Torquato Tasso ( 11 March 1544 &ndash 25 April 1595) was an Italian Poet of the 16th century best known for his poem Matteo Maria Boiardo (c 1434 &ndash December 20, 1494) was an Italian Renaissance Poet. Orlando Furioso ("The Frenzy of Orlando" more literally "Mad Orlando" in Italian furioso is seldom capitalized is an Italian As such, their incidents and plot devices later became central to works of English literature such as Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene; Spenser attempted to adapt the form devised to tell the tale of the triumph of Christianity over Islam to tell instead of the triumph of Protestantism over Roman Catholicism. Edmund Spenser (c 1552 &ndash 13 January, 1599) was an important English Poet and Poet Laureate best known for The The Faerie Queene is an English epic poem by Edmund Spenser, published first in three books in 1590 and later in six books in 1596 Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach based his (incomplete) 13th century epic Willehalm, consisting of seventy-eight manuscripts, on the life of William of Orange. Saint William of Gellone (755-traditionally May 28, c 812 or 814 in his own day Guilhem, also known as Guillaume d'Orange, Guillaume Fierabrace The chansons were also recorded in the Icelandic saga, Karlamagnús . Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland (

Indeed, until the 19th century, the tales of Roland and Charlemagne were as important as the tales of King Arthur and the Holy Grail, and the Italian epics on these themes were still accounted major works of literature. According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers It is only in the later nineteenth and twentieth century that the Matter of France was finally eclipsed by the Matter of Britain. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on

Narrative structure

The narrative structure of the chanson de geste has been compared to the one in the Nibelungenlied and in creole legends by Henri Wittmann[26] on the basis of common narreme structure as first developed in the work of Eugene Dorfman[27] and Jean-Pierre Tusseau[28]

Notes

  1. ^ This three-way classification of mythology is set out by the twelfth century poet Jean Bodel in the Chanson de Saisnes: for details see Matter of France. Narrative structure is generally described as the structural framework that underlies the order and manner in which a Narrative is presented to a reader listener or viewer The Nibelungenlied, translated as The Song of the Nibelungs, is an epic poem in Middle High German. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. A legend ( Latin, legenda, "things to be read" is a Narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to Henri Wittmann (born 1937 is a Canadian linguist from Quebec. Narreme is the basic unit of Narrative structure. According to Helmut Bonheim (2000 the concept of narreme was developed three decades ago by Eugene The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Jean Bodel, who lived in the late twelfth century was an Old French Poet who wrote a number of chansons de geste as well as many Fabliaux The Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of Legendary history that springs from the Old French Medieval literature
  2. ^ For this and other early evidence of the growth of a Roland tradition see Song of Roland. The Song of Roland (La Chanson de Roland is the oldest remaining major work of French literature.
  3. ^ William of Tyre, Historia Transmarina (Old French version) 10. This article is about the Archbishop/historian from the 1100s 20; Guibert of Nogent, Gesta Dei per Francos. Guibert of Nogent (c1055–1124 was a Benedictine Historian, theologian and author of autobiographical memoirs
  4. ^ Recueil général et complet des fabliaux ed. A. de Montaiglon (1872) vol. 1 p. 3
  5. ^ Martín de Riquer, Los cantares de gesta franceses (1952) pp. 390-404
  6. ^ Le Roland occitan ed. and tr. Gérard Gouiran, Robert Lafont (1991)
  7. ^ Ed. A. Thomas. Paris: Société des Anciens Textes Français, 1913.
  8. ^ Galiens li Restorés ed. Edmund Stengel (1890); Le Galien de Cheltenham ed. D. M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1981.
  9. ^ La geste de Fierabras, le jeu du réel et de l'invraissemblable ed. André de Mandach. Geneva, 1987.
  10. ^ Aiquin ou la conquête de la Bretagne par le roi Charlemagne ed. F. Jacques. Aix-en-Provence: Publications du CUER MA, 1977.
  11. ^ Raimbert de Paris, La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche ed. J. Barrois (1842)
  12. ^ Jehan de Lanson, chanson de geste of the 13th Century ed. J. Vernon Myers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.
  13. ^ Ed. François Guessard, Henri Michelant. Paris, 1859.
  14. ^ Ed. F. Guessard, S. Luce. Paris: Vieweg, 1862.
  15. ^ Simon de Pouille ed. Jeanne Baroin (1968)
  16. ^ La geste de Beaulande ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966)
  17. ^ La geste de Beaulande ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966)
  18. ^ La geste de Beaulande ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966)
  19. ^ Ed. C. Wahlund, H. von Feilitzen. Upsala and Paris, 1895.
  20. ^ Ed. W. Cloetta. Paris, 1906-13.
  21. ^ "La chanson de Doon de Nanteuil: fragments inédits" ed. Paul Meyer in Romania vol. 13 (1884)
  22. ^ Parise la Duchesse ed. G. F. de Martonne (1836); Parise la Duchesse ed. F. Guessard, L. Larchey (1860)
  23. ^ Gormont et Isembart ed. Alphonse Bayot (1931)
  24. ^ R. Weeks, "Aïmer le chétif" in PMLA vol. 17 (1902) pp. 411-434.
  25. ^ Ed. Jacques Normand and Gaston Raynaud. Paris, 1877.
  26. ^ Wittmann, Henri. 1995. "La structure de base de la syntaxe narrative dans les contes et légendes du créole haïtien. " Poétiques et imaginaires: francopolyphonie littéraire des Amériques. Edited by Pierre Laurette & Hans-George Ruprecht. Paris: L'Harmattan, pp. 207-218. [1]
  27. ^ Dorfman, Eugène. 1969. The narreme in the medieval romance epic: An introduction to narrative structures. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
  28. ^ *Tusseau, Jean-Pierre & Henri Wittmann. 1975. "Règles de narration dans les chansons de geste et le roman courtois". Folia linguistica 7. 401-12. [2]

See also

External links

"Gesta" redirects here For the Skipper butterfly Genus, see Gesta (butterfly. Anglo-Norman literature is Literature composed in the Anglo-Norman language developed during the period 1066–1204 when the Duchy of Normandy and As a Literary genre of High culture, romance or chivalric romance refers to a style of heroic Prose and verse Narrative The Fantastique is a French term for a literary and cinematic genre that overlaps with Science fiction, horror and Fantasy
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