| Certainty series |
|---|
- A related article is titled uncertainty. Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that Existence is without objective meaning Purpose Agnosticism ( Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge after Gnosticism) is the philosophical view that the Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields including Philosophy, Statistics, Economics, Finance, Insurance Probability is the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen An approximation (represented by the symbol ≈ is an inexact representation of something that is still close enough to be useful Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields including Philosophy, Statistics, Economics, Finance, Insurance
- For statistical certainty, see probability. Probability is the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen
Certainty can be defined as either (a) perfect knowledge that is total security from error, or (b) the mental state of being without doubt. Doubt, a status between Belief and disbelief, involves Uncertainty or Distrust or lack of sureness of an alleged Fact, an action Objectively defined, certainty is total continuity and validity of all foundational inquiry, to the highest degree of precision. Foundationalism is any theory in Epistemology (typically theories of justification, but also of Knowledge) that holds that beliefs are justified (known Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur. In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences Philosophy (at least historically) seeks this state. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language It is widely held that certainty is a failed historical enterprise. [1]
Contents |
Emotion
Strictly speaking, certainty is not a property of statements, but a property of people. 'Certainty' is an emotional state, like anger, jealousy, or embarrassment. When someone says "B is certain" they really mean "I am certain that B". The former is often used in everyday language, as it has a rhetorical advantage. It is also sometimes used to convey that a large number of people are certain about B. However the fact that certainty is an emotional state is not always heeded in the literature. The truth is, certainty is an emotional state that is attained by many people every day. In this sense, certainty is linked to 'faith' as a similar state of consciousness or of emotion.
History
Socrates- ancient Greece
Socrates, often thought to be the first true philosopher, had a higher a criterion for knowledge than others before him. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. The skeptical problems that he encountered in his philosophy were taken very seriously. As a result, he claimed to know nothing. Socrates often said that his wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance.
Al-Ghazali- Islamic theologian
Al-Ghazali was a professor of philosophy in the 11th century. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died His book titled The Incoherence of the Philosophers marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology, as Ghazali effectively discovered philosophical skepticism that would not be commonly seen in the West until René Descartes, George Berkeley and David Hume. The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences George Berkeley (ˈbɑrkli (12 March 1685 14 January 1753 also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a Philosopher. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy He described the necessity of proving the validity of reason- independently from reason. He attempted this and failed. The doubt that he introduced to his foundation of knowledge could not be reconciled using philosophy. Taking this very seriously, he resigned from his post at the university, and suffered serious psychosomatic illness. It was not until he became a religious sufi that he found a solution to his philosophical problems, which are based on Islamic religion; this encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Occasionalism is a philosophical theory about causation which says that created substances cannot be Efficient causes of events
Descartes- 18th Century
Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy is a book in which Descartes first discards all belief in things which are not absolutely certain, and then tries to establish what can be known for sure. Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated) is a philosophical treatise written Although the phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" is often attributed with Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy it is actually put forward in his Discourse on Method however, due to the implications of inferring the conclusion within the predicate he changed the argument to "I think, I exist" this then becomes his first certainty.
Ludwig Wittgenstein- 20th Century
On Certainty, is a book by Ludwig Wittgenstein. On Certainty ( Über Gewissheit) is a philosophical text written by Ludwig Wittgenstein. The main theme of the work is that context plays a role in epistemology. ConTEXT is a closed-source Freeware Text editor for Microsoft Windows, aimed at software developers Wittgenstein asserts an anti-foundationalist message throughout the work: that every claim can be doubted but certainty is possible in a framework. Anti-foundationalism (also called nonfoundationalism is a term applied to any philosophy which rejects a foundationalist approach i "The function [propositions] serve in language is to serve as a kind of framework within which empirical propositions can make sense". [2]
Foundational crisis of mathematics
The foundational crisis of mathematics was the early 20th century's term for the search for proper foundations of mathematics. Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of Mathematics, such as Mathematical logic, Axiomatic set theory, Proof theory The twentieth century of the Common Era began on
After several schools of the philosophy of mathematics ran into difficulties one after the other in the 20th century, the assumption that mathematics had any foundation that could be stated within mathematics itself began to be heavily challenged. The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and
One attempt after another to provide unassailable foundations for mathematics was found to suffer from various paradoxes (such as Russell's paradox) and to be inconsistent: an undesirable situation in which every mathematical statement that can be formulated in a proposed system (such as 2 + 2 = 5) can also be proved in the system. A paradox is a true statement or group of statements that leads to a Contradiction or a situation which defies intuition; or inversely Part of the Foundations of mathematics, Russell's paradox (also known as Russell's antinomy) discovered by Bertrand Russell in 1901 showed that the
Various schools of thought on the right approach to the foundations of mathematics were fiercely opposing each other. The leading school was that of the formalist approach, of which David Hilbert was the foremost proponent, culminating in what is known as Hilbert's program, which thought to ground mathematics on a small basis of a formal system proved sound by metamathematical finitistic means. David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most Hilbert's program, formulated by German mathematician David Hilbert in the 1920s was to formalize all existing theories to a finite complete set of axioms and provide In formal logic, a formal system (also called a logical system, a logistic system, or simply a logic Formal systems in mathematics consist In general metamathematics or meta-mathematics is a scientific reflection and Knowledge about mathematics seen as an entity/ object in Human In the Philosophy of mathematics, finitism is an extreme form of constructivism, according to which a mathematical object does not exist unless it can be constructed The main opponent was the intuitionist school, led by L. E. J. Brouwer, which resolutely discarded formalism as a meaningless game with symbols. In the Philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism, or neointuitionism (opposed to Preintuitionism) is an approach to Mathematics as the constructive Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer ɛxˈbɛʁtəs jɑn ˈbʁʌuəʁ ( February 27 1881, Overschie – December 2 1966, Blaricum The fight was acrimonious. In 1920 Hilbert succeeded in having Brouwer, whom he considered a threat to mathematics, removed from the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. The Mathematische Annalen (abbreviated as Math Ann or Math Annal
Gödel's incompleteness theorems, proved in 1931, showed that essential aspects of Hilbert's program could not be attained. In Mathematical logic, Gödel's incompleteness theorems, proved by Kurt Gödel in 1931 are two Theorems stating inherent limitations of all but the most In Gödel's first result he showed how to construct, for any sufficiently powerful and consistent finitely axiomatizable system – such as necessary to axiomatize the elementary theory of arithmetic – a statement that can be shown to be true, but that does not follow from the rules of the system. Kurt Gödel (kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩ (April 28 1906 – January 14 1978 was an Austrian American Logician, Mathematician and Philosopher Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone It thus became clear that the notion of mathematical truth can not be reduced to a purely formal system as envisaged in Hilbert's program. In a next result Gödel showed that such a system was not powerful enough for proving its own consistency, let alone that a simpler system could do the job. This dealt a final blow to the heart of Hilbert's program, the hope that consistency could be established by finitistic means. Meanwhile, the intuitionistic school had failed to attract adherents among working mathematicians, and floundered due to the difficulties of doing mathematics under the constraint of constructivism. In the Philosophy of mathematics
In a sense, the crisis has not been resolved, but faded away: most mathematicians either do not work from axiomatic systems, or if they do, do not doubt the consistency of ZFC, generally their preferred axiomatic system. Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice, commonly abbreviated ZFC, is the standard form of Axiomatic set theory and as such is the most common In most of mathematics as it is practiced, the various logical paradoxes never played a role anyway, and in those branches in which they do (such as logic and category theory), they may be avoided. Mathematical logic is a subfield of Logic and Mathematics with close connections to Computer science and Philosophical logic. In Mathematics, category theory deals in an abstract way with mathematical Structures and relationships between them it abstracts from sets
Quotes
| “ | There is no such thing as absolute certainty, but there is assurance sufficient
for the purposes of human life. — John Stuart Mill |
” |
| “ | Doubt is not a pleasant condition, but certainty is absurd. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential — Voltaire | ” |
| “ | In this world nothing can be said to be certain, except death and taxes. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French — Benjamin Franklin | ” |
See also
- Skeptical hypothesis
- Almost surely
- Infallibility
- pragmatism
- Fideism
- "justified true belief" -A common alternative to certainty
References
- ^ Peat, F. David (2002). Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. A skeptical hypothesis is a hypothetical situation which can be used in an argument for Skepticism about a particular claim or class of claims In Probability theory, one says that an event happens almost surely (a Infallibility, from Latin origin ('in' not + 'fallere' to deceive is a term with a variety of meanings related to knowing Truth with Certainty. Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. Fideism is the view that Religious belief relies primarily on Faith or Special revelation, rather than rational inference or observation Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge F David Peat (born April 18, 1938) was born in Waterloo, England and is a holistic Physicist and Author who From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twentieth Century. National Academies Press. National Academies Press ( NAP was created by the United States National Academies, to publish the reports issued by the United States National Academy of Sciences ISBN 978-0-309-09620-1.
- ^ Wittgenstein, Ludwig. On Certainty. SparkNotes. SparkNotes, originally part of a website called The Spark is a company started by Sam Yagan Max Krohn and Chris Coyne in 1999 that provides free in-depth commentary analysis
External links
- "Certitude". Catholic Encyclopedia. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- certainty, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD) is an American Dictionary of the English language published by Bartleby.com
- "certainty vs. doubt", About.com. Bartlebycom is an electronic text archive headquartered in New York and named after Herman Melville 's Bartleby the Scrivener. Aboutcom is an online source for original information and advice and is among the top 15 US Websites ( Nielsen Online Spring 2008 Retrieved on 2008-02-23. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable
- Certainty entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Baron Reed
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic