| Series on Celtic mythology  |
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Celtic polytheism |
| Ancient Celtic religion |
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Druids · Bards · Vates |
| Brythonic mythology |
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Welsh mythology |
| Gaelic mythology |
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Irish mythology |
| See also |
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Celts · Gaul |
The terms Celtic polytheism, Celtic paganism and Druidism refer to the religious beliefs and practices of ancient Celts, until the Christianization of Celtic-speaking lands. Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age The Gods and Goddesses or deities of the Celts are known from a variety of sources these include written Celtic mythology, ancient A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2 The earliest Latin writers used vates to denote "prophets" and soothsayers in general the word fell into disuse in Latin until it was revived by Virgil In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Gallo-Roman religion was a fusion of Roman religious forms and modes of worship with Gaulish deities from Celtic polytheism. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts Breton mythology is the Mythology or corpus of explanatory and herioc tales originating in Brittany, now in France. Taliesin (c 534 – c 599 (spelled as Taliessin in Alfred Lord Tennyson 's Idylls of the King and in some subsequent works was a Brythonic Cad Goddeu ( English: The Battle of the Trees) is a poem from the Book of Taliesin in which the legendary enchanter Gwydion The Welsh Triads ( Welsh Trioedd Ynys Prydein, literally "Triads of the Island of Britain " are a group of related texts in Medieval The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings Scottish mythology may refer to any of the mythologies of Scotland. The Inner and Outer Hebrides off the western coast of Scotland are made up of a great number of large and small islands The Tuatha Dé Danann ("peoples of the Goddess Danu " Modern Irish pronunciation /t̪ˠuːəhə dʲeː d̪ˠan̪ˠən̪ˠ/ Old Irish /tuːaθa ðʲeː The Mythological Cycle is one of the four major cycles of Irish mythology, and is so called because it represents the remains of the pagan Mythology of Texts in translation Most of the important Ulster Cycle tales can be found in the following publications Thomas Kinsella, The Táin, Oxford University The Fenian Cycle or Fiannaidheacht (modern Irish Fiannaíocht) also known as the Fionn Cycle, Finn Cycle, Fianna Cycle, Finnian An Immram (plural Immrama; Modern Irish: iomramh) is one of a class of Old Irish tales concerning a hero's sea journey to the Otherworld An Echtra or Echtrae (pl Echtrai) is one of a category of Old Irish literature about a hero's adventures in the Otherworld (see Tír na Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. The Celtiberians (or Celt-Iberians were a Celtic people of Hallstatt culture Prehistory Mesolithic (8000 BC - 4500 BC What little is known of pre- Christian Ireland comes from a few references in Roman writings Archaeology and Geology continue to reveal the secrets of prehistoric Scotland, uncovering a complex and dramatic past before the Romans brought Scotland Prehistoric Wales in terms of human settlements covers the period from about 230000 years ago the date attributed to the earliest human remains found in what is now Wales A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The historical phenomenon of Christianization (or Christianisation &mdash see spelling differences) the conversion of individuals to Christianity At various times those lands included Ireland, Britain, Celtiberia, Gaul, areas along the Danube river, and Galatia. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Celtiberians (or Celt-Iberians were a Celtic people of Hallstatt culture Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Currently, the areas of Europe that retain Celtic culture are limited to the six Celtic nations. Celtic nations are areas of modern northwest Europe which identify themselves with the Celtic cultures specifically speakers of Celtic languages.
Celtic religious practices bear the marks of Romanization following the Roman Empire's conquest of Gaul (58–51 BCE) and Britain (43 CE), although the depth and significance of Romanization is a subject of scholarly disagreement. Romanization may also refer to linguistics see Romanization. Romanization was a gradual process of Cultural assimilation, in which The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
The nature of Celtic polytheism
According to classical era sources, the Celts worshipped the forces of nature and did not envisage deities in anthropomorphic terms. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects [1] Deities undoubtedly formed a background to everyday life. Both archaeology and the literary record indicate that ritual practice in Celtic societies lacked a clear distinction between the sacred and profane in which rituals, offerings and correct behaviour maintained a balance between gods and man, and harnessed supernatural forces for the benefit of the group. [2]
The pagan Celts perceived the presence of the supernatural as integral to their world. The sky, the sun, the dark places underground all had their spirits, life-forces and personalities. The term energy has been widely adopted into the fields of spirituality complementary medicine etc [3] Every mountain, river, spring, marsh, tree and rocky outcrop was endowed with divinity. A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or [4] While Greek and Roman culture revolved around urban life, Celtic society was predominantly rural. The close link enjoyed with the natural world is reflected in what we know of the religious systems of Celtic Europe during the late first millennium BC and early first millennium AD. As in many polytheistic systems, the spirits worshipped were those of both the wild and cultivated landscapes and their inhabitants. Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals Cults focussed upon features of the landscape; mountains, forests and animals. A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Divine powers associated with the fertility of humans, of livestock and of crops were objects of veneration. Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Tribal territories were themselves held sacred and the ground and waters which received the dead were imbued with sanctity and revered by their living relatives. A mortuary enclosure is a term given in Archaeology and Anthropology to an area surrounded by a wood stone or earthwork barrier in which dead bodies are placed [5] Sanctuaries were sacred spaces separated from the ordinary world, often in natural locations such as springs, groves or lakes. Many topographical features were deified as gods: many divine names refer to specific locations or geographical features, a clear indication of how closely Celtic societies identified with place. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets Small thank offerings were placed in domestic storage pits while more elaborate deposits were left in specially dug ritual shafts and in lakes. These offerings linked the donor to the place in a concrete way, since complex and varied rituals involved the individual in personal contact with the sacred sites devoted to their gods. An image very different from the idea of druids administering a pan-Celtic religion. [6]
Animal worship
The character and vitality of certain animal species seems to have been considered numinous. Numinous (ˈnjuːmɨnəs is a term coined by German theologian Rudolf Otto to describe that which is wholly other. Certain spirits were very close to the animals with which they were associated: the names of Artio the ursine goddess and Epona the equine goddess are based on Celtic words for ‘bear’ and ‘horse’. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath In Gallo-Roman religion, Artio was a Goddess of the Bear, and was worshipped at Berne, which actually means "bear" A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic" a branch of the greater Indo-European Language family. [7]
Sanctity of hunting
Hunting deities whose role acknowledges the economic importance of animals and the ritual of the hunt highlight a different relationship to nature. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. The animal elements in half-human, antlered deities suggest that the forest and its denizens possessed a numinous quality as well as an economic value. Numinous (ˈnjuːmɨnəs is a term coined by German theologian Rudolf Otto to describe that which is wholly other. For this reason they were deified as gods. Some scholars explain shape-shifting and magical motifs in terms of Celtic beliefs about rebirth and the afterlife, but it is more likely that such deities had a regenerative function. Attributes like fruit and grain imply fecundity, while animals such as snake and deer (who shed their skins and antlers) suggest cycles of growth. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. A snake is an elongate Reptile of the suborder Serpentes Like all reptiles snakes are covered in scales. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. . [8]
Hunter-gods were venerated in Celtic Europe and they often seem to have had an ambivalent role as protector both of the hunter and the prey, not unlike the functions of Diana and Artemis in classical mythology. In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of the hunt, being associated with wild animals and woodland and also of the Moon. In Greek mythology, Artemis language|Greek] ( Nominative), ( Genitive))] was the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. [9] From Gaul, the armed deer-hunter depicted on an image from the temple of Le Donon in the Vosges lays his hands in benediction on the antlers of his stag companion. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Vosges (voːʒ is a French department, named after the Vosges mountain range. A benediction ( Latin: bene, well + dicere, to speak is a short Invocation for divine help Blessing and guidance usually at the The hunter-god from Le Touget in Gers carries a hare tenderly in his arms. The Gers ( French: le Gers, Occitan: Gers) is a department in the Midi-Pyrénées region in the southwest Arduinna, the eponymous boar-goddess of the Ardennes, rides her ferocious quarry , knife in hand, whilst the boar-god of Euffigneix in the Haute-Marne is portrayed with the motif of a boar with bristles erect, striding along his torso, which implies conflation between the human animal perception of divinity. In Celtic mythology, Arduinna ( Arduina Arduinnae Arduinne) was the eponymous goddess of the Ardennes Forest and region represented as a huntress For the political subdivision of France see Ardennes (department. Euffigneix is a Village and commune in the Haute-Marne département of north-eastern France. Haute-Marne is a department in the northeast of France named after the Marne River. The boar or wild boar ( Sus scrofa) is an Omnivorous, gregarious Mammal of the biological family Suidae. A bristle is a stiff Hair or Feather. Also used are synthetic materials such as nylon or straw in items such as brooms and sweepers [10] Arawn of Welsh mythology may represent the remnants of a similar hunter-god of the forests of Dyfed. In Welsh mythology, Arawn was the king of the Otherworld realm of Annwn. Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts Dyfed ('dɪ ved is a preserved county of Wales. Dyfed was created by the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974.
As with many traditional societies, the hunt was probably hedged about with prohibitions and rituals. TheGreek author Arrian, writing in the second century AD, said that the Celts never went hunting without the gods’ blessing and that they made payment of domestic animals to the supernatural powers in reparation for their theft of wild creatures from the landscape. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca [11] Hunting itself may have been perceived as a symbolic, as well as practical, activity in which the spilling of blood led not only to the death of the beast but also to the earth’s nourishment and replenishment. [12]
Weather worship
Meteorological patterns and phenomena, especially the sun and thunder, were acknowledged as divine and propitiated. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Thunder is the sound made by Lightning. Depending on the nature of the lightning and distance of the listener it can range from a sharp Inscribed dedications and iconography in the Roman period show that these spirits were personifications of natural forces. [13] Taranis’s name indicates not that he was the god of thunder but that he actually was thunder. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus [14] Archaeological evidence suggests that the sun and thunder were perceived as especially potent. Inscriptions to Taranis the ‘Thunderer’ have been found in Britain, Gaul, Germany and the former Yugoslavia and the Roman poet Lucan mentions him as a savage god who demanded human sacrifice. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Human sacrifice is the act of Homicide (the Killing of one or several Human beings in the context of a Religious ritual ( ritual killing
From the early Bronze Age, people in much of temperate Europe used the spoked wheel to represent the sun and, by the late Iron Age and Roman periods, solar deities were represented with wheel-symbols (see sun cross). The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a Wheel (the hub where the Axle connects connecting the hub with the round traction surface A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The sun cross, a Cross inside a Circle, is one of the oldest and most widespread of symbols The Romans imported their own celestial god, Jupiter, to Celtic lands and his imagery was merged with that of the native sun-god to produce a hybrid sky-deity who resembled the Roman god but who had the additional native solar attribute of the wheel. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. "Sun god" redirects here For the Ramsey Lewis album see Sun Goddess (album. [15] This Celtic sky-god had variations in the way he was perceived and his cult expressed. Yet the link between the Celtic Jupiter and the solar wheel is maintained over a wide area: altars decorated with the wheels were set up by Roman soldiers stationed at Hadrian's Wall, and also by supplicants in Cologne and Nîmes. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Nîmes ( Provençal Occitan: Nimes in both classical and Mistralian norms is a city in southern France. [16]
Water worship
The spirits of watery places were invoked as givers of life and as links between the earthly and the other world. [17] Sequana, for example, seems to have embodied the River Seine at its spring source and Sulis appears to have been one and the same as the hot spring at Bath, not simply its guardian or possessor. In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe The Seine (sɛn in French) is a slow flowing major River and commercial waterway within the regions of Île-de-France and Haute-Normandie In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. [18]
There is abundant evidence for the veneration of water by the Celts and indeed by their Bronze Age forebears. In the Pre-Roman Iron Age, lakes, rivers, springs and bogs received special offerings of metalwork, wooden objects, animals and, occasionally, of human beings. The Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe ( 5th / 4th century BC - 1st century BC) designates the earliest part of the Iron Age in Scandinavia A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also By the Roman period, the names of some water-deities were recorded on inscriptions or were included in contemporary texts. The ancient name for the River Marne was Matrona ‘Great Mother;’ the Seine was Sequana; the Severn, Sabrina; the Wharfe, Verbeia; the Saône, Souconna, and there are countless others. The Marne is a River in France, a right Tributary of the Seine in the area east and southeast of Paris. In Celtic mythology, Dea Matrona ("divine mother goddess" was the Goddess of the river Marne in Gaul. The Seine (sɛn in French) is a slow flowing major River and commercial waterway within the regions of Île-de-France and Haute-Normandie In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe For other rivers named "Severn" see Severn River. The River Severn ( Welsh: Afon Hafren, Latin In ancient Celtic polytheism, Verbeia was a goddess worshipped in Roman Britain. The Saône (son ( Sona in Arpitan) is a River of eastern France. The Saône (son ( Sona in Arpitan) is a River of eastern France. Natural springs were foci for healing cults: Sulis was invoked as a healer at Aquae Sulis and the goddess Arnemetia was hailed as a healer at Aquae Arnemetiae. Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. Arnemetia was a goddess in In Romano-British religion. Her shrine was at Aquae Arnemetiae ("waters of Arnemetia" which is now Buxton in Derbyshire Buxton is a Spa town in Derbyshire, England. Located close to the county boundary with Cheshire to the west and Staffordshire to the south [19] Nemausus, for example, was not only the Gallic name for the town of Nîmes but also that of its presiding spring-god. For the town see Nîmes. For the True bug Genus, see Nemausus (bug. Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Vulgar Latin of the late Roman Empire became Nîmes ( Provençal Occitan: Nimes in both classical and Mistralian norms is a city in southern France. A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface He had a set of three female counterparts, the Nemausicae. [20] In the same region, the town of Glanum possessed a god called Glanis: an altar from a sacred spring is inscribed ‘to Glanis and the Glanicae’. Glanum was a Roman city in Gallia Narbonensis — Provence in southern France — sited on the flanks of the Alpilles, a range Glanis was a Gaulish god associated with a healing spring at the town of Glanum in the Alpilles mountains of Provence in southern France An altar is any structure upon which Sacrifices or other offerings are made for religious purposes or some other sacred place where ceremonies take place [21]
The hierarchy of the Celtic gods
Evidence from the Roman period presents a bewildering array of gods and goddesses who are represented by images or inscribed dedications. [22] Sorting these multifarious and divine beings into some kind of hierarchy is necessary, though not always easy, if one is to make any sense of the religious system in place in Celtic Europe. By examining the distribution of images and god-names, it is possible to make distinctions between deities who were venerated all over the Celtic world, those who were popular in more restricted regions - perhaps corresponding to tribal boundaries - and those who were linked to a specific locality, sometimes worshipped only at a single sanctuary. [23] The establishment of patterns of frequency and distribution may point to the relative popularity of certain gods, but not necessarily to any order of importance. For example, in east-central Gaul, the local Burgundian healing goddess Sequana was probably more influential in the minds of her local devotees than the Matres, who were worshipped all over Britain, Gaul and the Rhineland. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. [24]
Certain cults transcended tribal boundaries and were followed everywhere. Examples of universal divinities include the Matres, the sky-god and Epona, the horse-goddess, who was invoked by devotees living as far apart as Britain, Rome and Bulgaria. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian A distinctive feature of the mother-goddesses was their frequent appearance as a triad: they were perceived as a triple entity in many parts of Britain, in Gaul and on the Rhine. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge Although it is possible to identify strong regional differences between them. [25]
The Celtic sky-god too had variations in the way he was perceived and his cult expressed. Yet the link between the Celtic Jupiter and the solar wheel is maintained over wide areas, from Hadrian’s Wall to Cologne and Nîmes. The sun cross, a Cross inside a Circle, is one of the oldest and most widespread of symbols Nîmes ( Provençal Occitan: Nimes in both classical and Mistralian norms is a city in southern France. . [26]
The importance of local deities
Regional divinities can sometimes be identified, perhaps especially associated with tribal and sub-tribal territories. Specific to the Remi of northwest Gaul is a distinctive group of stone carvings depicting a triple-faced god with shared facial features and luxuriant beards. This article is about a tribe for alternate meanings see Remi (disambiguation. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western In the Iron Age, this same tribe issued coins with three faces, a motif found elsewhere is Gaul. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western [27] The inference is that a specific Remic divinity is represented. Another tribal god was Lenus, venerated by the Treveri. Trier Quelle am Irminenwingert632ajpg|right|thumb|300px|The spring sacred to Lenus Mars near the temple ‘Am Irminenwingert’ overlooking Trier The Treveri or Treviri were a tribe of Gauls who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle, within the southern fringes of the Arduenna Silva He was worshipped at a number of Treveran sanctuaries, the most splendid of which was at the tribal capital of Trier itself. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. Yet he was also exported to other areas: Lenus has altars set up to him in Chedworth in Gloucestershire and Caerwent in Wales. Trier Quelle am Irminenwingert632ajpg|right|thumb|300px|The spring sacred to Lenus Mars near the temple ‘Am Irminenwingert’ overlooking Trier Chedworth is a Village in Gloucestershire, in the Cotswolds and best known as the location of Chedworth Roman Villa, administered since 1924 History See also History of Gloucestershire Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century Caerwent (Caer-went is a Village and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, located about 5 miles west of Chepstow and 11 miles east [28]
Many Celtic divinities were extremely localised, sometimes occurring in just one shrine, perhaps because the spirit concerned was a genius loci personifying the natural balance of a particular place. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath In Roman mythology a genius loci was the protective spirit of a place Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of [29] In Gaul, over four hundred different Celtic god-names are recorded, of which at least 300 occur just once. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Sequana was confined to her spring shrine near Dijon, Sulis belonged to Bath. In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface A shrine, from the Latin scrinium (‘box’ also used as a desk like the French bureau) was originally a container usually made of precious materials used Dijon ( diʒɔ̃ is a city in eastern France, the capital of the Côte-d'Or departement and of the Bourgogne region In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. The divine couple Ucuetis and Bergusia were worshipped solely at Alesia in Burgundy. Ucuetis is a Celtic god who along with his consort Bergusia, was venerated at Alesia in Burgundy. Bergusia is a Celtic goddess, consort of the god Ucuetis, and worshipped with him at Alesia in Burgundy. Alesia was the capital of the Mandubii, one of the Gaulish tribes allied with the mighty Aedui, and after Julius Caesar 's conquest a Roman town Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) The British god Nodens is associated above all with the great sanctuary at Lydney. Nodens ( Nudens, Nodons) is a Celtic Deity associated with healing the sea hunting and dogs Yet he appears at one other site, at Cockersand Moss in Cumbria. Two other British deities, Cocidius and Belatucadrus were both Martial gods and were each worshipped in a clearly defined territories in the area of Hadrian’s Wall. In Romano-British religion Cocidius was a Deity worshipped in northern Britain. In Celtic mythology, Belatu-Cadros, also rendered Belatucadros or Belatucadrus, was a Deity worshipped in northern Britain particularly in [30] There are many other gods whose names betray their origins as topographical spirits. In Roman mythology a genius loci was the protective spirit of a place Vosegus presided over the mountains of the Vosges, Luxovius of the spa-settlement of Luxeuil and Vasio to whom belonged the town of Vaison in the Lower Rhône Valley. In Gallo-Roman religion, Vosegus was the Patron god of the Vosges in eastern Gaul. Vosges (voːʒ is a French department, named after the Vosges mountain range. In Gallo-Roman religion, Luxovios, Latinized as Luxovius was the god of the waters of Luxeuil, worshipped in Gaul. The term spa is associated with water treatment which is also known as Balneotherapy, Spa towns or Spa resorts offering such treatment or the medication Luxeuil-les-Bains is a town and commune of eastern France, in the Haute-Saône département. Vasio is a Celtic god, of whom little is known He was the god presiding over the Roman town of Vaison-la-Romaine in the lower Rhone valley Vaison-la-Romaine (Latin Vasio Vocontiorum) is a small town and former bishopric in Provence. The Rhone, or the Rhône is one of the major Rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France. [31]
The evidence for Celtic religion
The evidence for the nature of Celtic religion comes partly from ancient literature (from the Classical commentators on the Celts, and from the vernacular mythic sources of Ireland and Wales) and partly from archaeological evidence, especially in the Roman period when inscribed dedications and religious images contribute significantly to our knowledge. What we lack because of the virtual non-literacy of Iron Age Celts is written testimony from the Celts themselves. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. [32]
It is important to exercise some care in using all three of these sources for Celtic religion. The classical historians were inevitably subject to bias, distortion, ignorance, misunderstanding, literary convention and barbarian stereotyping, all of which combine to present a picture of Celtic religion which is somewhat skewed and, to a certain extent, unreal. [33] Because of their chronological separation from the pre-Christian world, the early Welsh and Irish vernacular sources, written in the Welsh and Irish languages, must be scrutinized with even more rigour than the classical sources in assessing their validity as evidence for pagan Celtic religion. Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic Irish (ga ''Gaeilge'' is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish. [34] While it is possible to single out specific texts which - because of their pagan content - can be strongly argued to encapsulate genuine echoes or resonances of the pre-Christian past, the earliest mythic stories of Ireland and Wales were not compiled in written form until the mediaeval period. The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts [35] Opinion is divided as to whether these texts contain substantive material derived from oral tradition as preserved by bards or whether they were the creation of the mediaeval monastic tradition. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2 Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms Monks (men and Nuns (women [36]
The archaeological evidence does not contain the bias inherent in the literary sources. Bias is a term used to describe a Tendency or Preference towards a particular perspective, Ideology or result especially when the tendency interferes Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Nonetheless, our interpretation of this evidence is inevitably coloured by the twenty-first-century mindset. [37]
Four main types of source provide information on Celtic polytheism: the minted coins of Gaul, Raetia, Noricum and Britain; the sculptures, monuments and inscriptions associated with the Celts of continental Europe and of Roman Britain; Greek and Roman literature; and the insular literatures of Celtic mythology that have survived in writing from medieval times. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the Continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age All pose problems of interpretation. The pre-Roman coins of the 1st century BC and early 1st century AD bear few relevant inscriptions, and their iconography derives partly from standardized Hellenistic numismatic prototypes and partly presents highly local emblems. Most of the monuments, and their accompanying inscriptions, belong to the Roman period and reflect a considerable degree of syncretism between Celtic and Roman gods; even where figures and motifs appear to derive from pre-Roman tradition, they are difficult to interpret in the absence of a preserved literature on mythology. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its
Only after the lapse of many centuries – beginning in the 7th century in Ireland, even later in Wales – were Celtic mythological traditions consigned to writing, but by then Ireland and Wales had been Christianised and the scribes and redactors were monastic scholars. The resulting literature is abundant and varied, but it is much removed in both time and location from its epigraphic and iconographic correlatives on the Continent and inevitably reflects the redactors' selectivity and something of their Christian learning. There are nevertheless many points of agreement between the insular literatures and the continental evidence. This is particularly notable in the case of the Classical commentators from Posidonius (c. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Posidonius ( Greek: Ποσειδώνιος / Poseidonios "of Apameia " (ὁ Απαμεύς or "of Rhodes " (ὁ Ρόδιος (ca 135–c. 51 BC) onward who recorded their own or others' observations on the Celts.
Cosmology and eschatology
Though there are records of deity names, and archaeological remains including altars and temples, little is known about the specific religious beliefs of the Celts of Gaul. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Their burial practices, which included burying food, weapons, and ornaments with the dead, suggest a belief in life after death. AfterLife is a film drama set in Scotland directed by Alison Peebles made in 2003 about an ambitious Scottish journalist forced to choose between [38] The druids, the early Celtic priesthood, were said by Caesar to have taught the doctrine of transmigration of the soul along with astronomy and the nature and power of the gods. A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies Transmigration of the soul (sometimes given simply as Transmigration) is similar and foreign in some ways to the philosophy of Reincarnation. [39]
The Irish believed in an Otherworld, which they described sometimes as underground, such as in the Sídhe mounds, and sometimes located on islands in the Western Sea. The Otherworld was variously called Tír na mBeo ("the Land of the Living"), Mag Mell ("Delightful Plain"), and Tír na nÓg ("Land of the Young"), among other names. Tír na nÓg ( Old Irish Tír na n-Oc) (tʲiɾʲ n̪ˠa n̪ˠog called in English the Land of Eternal Youth or the Land of the Ever-Young It was believed to be a country where there was no sickness, old age, or death, where happiness lasted forever, and a hundred years was as one day. It was probably similar to the Elysium of the Greek mythology and both may have a shared origin in ancient Proto-Indo-European religion. In Greek mythology, Elysium ( Greek:) was a section of the Underworld (the spelling Elysium is a Latinization of the Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European (IE peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European In Irish Immrama ("voyage") tales, a beautiful young woman often approaches the hero and sings to him of this happy land. An Immram (plural Immrama; Modern Irish: iomramh) is one of a class of Old Irish tales concerning a hero's sea journey to the Otherworld Sometimes she offers him an apple, or the promise of her love in exchange for his assistance in battle. He follows her, and they journey over the sea together and are seen no more. Their journey may take place in a boat of glass, in a chariot or on horseback (usually upon a white horse, as in the case of the goddess Niamh of the Golden Hair). Niamh is an Irish goddess Niamh (pronounced /niːəv/ or /niːv/ may also refer to Various Irish women with the name Sometimes the hero returns after what he believes is a short time, only to find that all his companions are dead and he has actually been away for hundreds of years. Sometimes the hero sets out on a quest, and a magic mist descends upon him. He may find himself before an unusual palace and enter to find a warrior or a beautiful woman who makes him welcome. The woman may be the goddess Fand, the warrior may be Manannán mac Lir or Lugh, and after strange adventures the hero may return successfully. Fand is an early Irish sea goddess later described as a "Queen of the Fairies " In Celtic mythology, Manannán mac Lir is the god of the sea He is often seen as a Psychopomp, and considered to have strong connections to the Otherworld Lugh (ˈluː modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish Deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant However, even in cases where the mortal manages to return to his own time and place, he is forever changed by his contact with the Otherworld. [40]
This conception of the Otherworld is also preserved in the Welsh story of Branwen, daughter of Llyr, which ends with the survivors of the great battle feasting in the presence of the severed head of Bran the Blessed, having forgotten all their suffering and sorrow, and having become unaware of the passage of time. Branwen is also the name of a character in some versions of Tristan and Iseult. Llŷr is a figure in Welsh mythology, the father of Bran, Branwen and Manawydan by Penarddun. Bran the Blessed ( Welsh: Bendigeidfran, literally "Blessed Crow" is a giant and king of Britain in Welsh mythology. [41] In Irish lore, Donn, a god of the dead, reigned over Tech Duinn ('The House of Donn'), which was seen as existing on or under Bull Island, located off the Beare Peninsula in the southwest of Ireland. According to Irish mythology, Donn, or the Dark One, is the Lord of the Dead and father of Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, whom he gave to Aengus Óg to Bull Island ( Oileán an Tairbh in Irish) or more properly North Bull Island ( Oileán an Tairbh Thuaidh in Irish) is an island located It was believed that the newly-dead journeyed to Tech Duinn, either to remain there forever, or perhaps as a starting-point on their journey to the Blessed Isles across the Western Sea. In the Fortunate Isles also called the Isles (or Islands) of the Blessed (μακάρων νη̂σοι makárôn nêsoi) Heroes and [42] A Welsh corollary to Tech Duinn is Annwfn, ruled by the Otherworld kings Arawn and Gwyn ap Nudd. Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts Annwn or Annwfn ( Middle Welsh Annwvn, sometimes inaccurately written Annwyn Annwyfn or Annwfyn) was the Otherworld In Welsh mythology, Arawn was the king of the Otherworld realm of Annwn. In Welsh mythology, Gwyn ap Nudd (/ˈgwɨn ap ˈnɨːð/ sometimes found with the antiquated spelling Gwynn ap Nudd) was king of the Tylwyth Teg (the " [43]
Insular Celts swore their oaths by their personal or tribal gods, and the land, sea and sky; as in, "I swear by the gods by whom my people swear" and "If I break my oath, may the land open to swallow me, the sea rise to drown me, and the sky fall upon me. "[44] Or, in more detail, as sworn by the King of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa, in the Ulster Cycle tale, Táin Bó Cúailnge ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley"):
| “ | The sky is above us and the earth below and the sea all about us. Ulster ( Ulaidh ˈkwɪɟɪ ˈʌlˠu / ˈʌlˠi is one of the four provinces of Ireland, in addition to Connacht, Munster and Leinster Conchobar mac Nessa (son of Ness) is the king of Ulster in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Texts in translation Most of the important Ulster Cycle tales can be found in the following publications Thomas Kinsella, The Táin, Oxford University Unless the firmament with its showers of stars falls down upon the earth, or the earth bursts asunder in an earthquake or the blue-bordered furrowy sea flows over the hair of the earth, I shall bring back every cow to her byre and yard and every woman to her home and dwelling, after victory in the battle. [45] | ” |
Worship
According to Poseidonius and later classical authors Gaulish religion and culture were the concern of three professional classes—the druids, the bards, and the vates. Posidonius ( Greek: Ποσειδώνιος / Poseidonios "of Apameia " (ὁ Απαμεύς or "of Rhodes " (ὁ Ρόδιος (ca A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2 The earliest Latin writers used vates to denote "prophets" and soothsayers in general the word fell into disuse in Latin until it was revived by Virgil This threefold hierarchy had its reflection among the two main branches of Celts in Ireland and Wales, but is best represented in early Irish tradition with its draoithe (druids), filidh (visionary poets), and Faidh (seers). FILI – Finnish Literature Exchange is an expert and export organisation which supports the translation printing and publishing of literature and promotes the awareness of Finnish literature However these categories are not always fixed, and may be named or divided differently in different primary sources.
Classical sources claimed that the Celts had no temples (before the Gallo-Roman period) and that their ceremonies took place in forest sanctuaries. However, archaeologist have discovered a large number of temple sites excavated throughout the Celtic world, primarily in Gaul. In the Gallo-Roman period, more permanent stone temples were erected, and many of them have been discovered by archaeologists in Britain as well as in Gaul. Indeed, a distinct type of Celto-Roman temple called a fanum also was developed. This was distinguished from a common Roman shrine by having an ambulatory on all four sides of the central cella. Fanum At the temples Romans prayed and made Ritual Worship Offerings of a small gift or Animal sacrifices to their Roman For the Spanish town see Cella Spain Naos redirects here For other meanings see Naos (disambiguation.
Celtic religious practice was probably sacrificial in its interactions with the gods. Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" Roman writers stated that the Celts practiced human sacrifice in Gaul: Cicero, Julius Caesar, Suetonius, and Lucan all refer to it, and Pliny the Elder says that it occurred in Britain, too. The Celts practised Human sacrifice on a limited scale as part of their religious Rituals Animal sacrifice was more commonplace along with ritual deposition Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author It was forbidden under Tiberius and Claudius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to However there is also the possibility that these claims may have been false, and used as a sort of propaganda to justify the Roman conquest of these territories. There are only very few recorded archaeological discoveries which preserve evidence of human sacrifice and thus most contemporary historians tend to regard human sacrifice as rare within Celtic cultures. Human sacrifice is the act of Homicide (the Killing of one or several Human beings in the context of a Religious ritual ( ritual killing There is some circumstantial evidence that human sacrifice was known in Ireland and was later forbidden by St. Patrick, a claim which has also been disputed. Circumstantial evidence is a collection of Facts that when considered together can be used to infer a conclusion about something unknown Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint
The early Celts considered some trees to be sacred. The importance of trees in Celtic religion is shown by the fact that the very name of the Eburonian tribe contains a reference to the yew tree, and that names like Mac Cuilinn (son of holly) and Mac Ibar (son of yew) appear in Irish myths. MacCuillinn or Mac Cuillann is an Irish Surname. The name is the Patronymic form of a Personal name derived from cuileann In Ireland, wisdom was symbolized by the salmon who feed on the hazelnuts from the trees that surround the well of wisdom (Tobar Segais).
There was also a warrior cult that centered on the severed heads of their enemies. According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings The Celts provided their dead with weapons and other accoutrements, which indicates that they most likely believed in some form of an afterlife.
The ritual of the oak and the mistletoe
Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, describes a religious ceremony in Gaul in which white-clad druids climbed a sacred oak, cut down the mistletoe growing on it, sacrificed two white bulls and used the mistletoe to cure infertility:[46]
| “ | The druids - that is what they call their magicians - hold nothing more sacred than the mistletoe and a tree on which it is growing, provided it is Valonia Oak…. A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of Trees and Shrubs in the Genus Quercus (from Latin Viscum album is a species of Mistletoe, the species originally so-named and also known as European Mistletoe or Common Mistletoe Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of Trees and Shrubs in the Genus Quercus (from Latin Viscum album is a species of Mistletoe, the species originally so-named and also known as European Mistletoe or Common Mistletoe Bigger picture The Mistletoe is rare and when found it is gathered with great ceremony, and particularly on the sixth day of the moon…. Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth Hailing the moon in a native word that means ‘healing all things,’ they prepare a ritual sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose horns are bound for the first time on this occasion. In Greek mythology, Panacea (Greek Πανάκεια, Panakeia) was the goddess of healing A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" A banquet is a large public meal or feast complete with main courses and desserts Bigger picture The A horn is a pointed projection of the Skin on the head of various Mammals consisting of a covering of horn ( Keratin and other Proteins A priest arrayed in white vestments climbs the tree and, with a golden sickle, cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Vestments are liturgical garments and articles associated primarily with the Christian religions especially the Latin Rite and other Roman Catholics Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 A sickle is a hand-held Agricultural Tool with a curved Blade typically used for harvesting grain crop or cutting grass for Hay. A cloak is a type of loose Garment that is worn over indoor Clothing and serves the same purpose as an Overcoat &mdashit protects the wearer from the cold Then finally they kill the victims, praying to a god to render his gift propitious to those on whom he has bestowed it. Bigger picture The See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always They believe that mistletoe given in drink will impart fertility to any animal that is barren and that it is an antidote to all poisons[47] | ” |
Pliny was primarily interested in natural history and some scholars have dismissed the testimony in relation to the druids’ ceremony as largely fanciful, particularly as he is the only classical author to mention this ceremony. Yet Pliny specifically associates druids with oak trees. Oaks were held sacred by both druids and Celts alike. Drunemeton, the ‘oak sanctuary,’ is described by Strabo as a place where the Galatian Council met[48] and oak was used to construct the great Iron Age multi-ring timber structure at Navan Fort in County Armagh. Drunematon is the third Demo album by the Black metal band Graveland. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Navan Fort should not be confused with Navan in County Meath. County Armagh ( Contae Ard Mhacha in Irish - from the height of Macha) is a county in Ulster in the north east of Ireland [49] The Poole Logboat and the Corlea Trackway were both made of oak in the Iron Age. The Poole Logboat is an ancient Logboat made from a single Oak tree. The Corlea Trackway is an Iron Age trackway or togher, near the village of Kenagh, south of Longford town County Longford, in the This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. [50]
Central to Pliny’s statement is the sanctity of the mistletoe, both as a healing agent and as an aid to fertility. Viscum album is a species of Mistletoe, the species originally so-named and also known as European Mistletoe or Common Mistletoe Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population Both these concerns are emphasised in Celtic religious expression. Interestingly, in modern pharmacopoeia, mistletoe is reputed to be beneficial to sufferers of insomnia, high blood pressure and certain malignant tumours. Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound Insomnia is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep despite the opportunity Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the Blood pressure is chronically elevated Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled [51] Moreover, that mistletoe may have possessed important symbolism for the Celts is suggested by its presence as a motif in early Celtic art. Human heads bearing curious leaf-shaped crowns are common decorative themes on both jewellery and stone monuments. A wreath is a Headdress made from leaves grasses flowers or branches Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones A monument is a structure either explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of past [52] The lobed shape of the leaves on these objects closely resembles the leaves of European mistletoe and, if such an identification be correct, it may be that the faces depicted in this pre-Roman art are those of priests or gods. Viscum album is a species of Mistletoe, the species originally so-named and also known as European Mistletoe or Common Mistletoe A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always
In Pliny’s comments, three other points of significance concern banqueting, the moon and bull-sacrifice. A banquet is a large public meal or feast complete with main courses and desserts The British White is a British Cattle breed dating back at least as far as the 16th Century Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" All three are familiar to the repertoire of Celtic religion. Ritual banquets are represented in some rich tombs of both the early and late Iron Age of Celtic Europe: the Hallstatt chieftain’s tomb at Hochdorf was furnished with a set of nine drinking horns and a nine-piece dinner service, for the otherworld Banquet, as well as a huge cauldron of mead. A banquet is a large public meal or feast complete with main courses and desserts The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site The Hallstatt culture was the predominant A drinking horn was a Drinking vessel formerly common in some parts of the world and notably in Northern Europe. The Otherworld ( orbis alia) in Celtic mythology is the realm of the dead, the home of the deities, or the stronghold of other spirits and beings A cauldron or caldron (from Latin Caldarium, hot bath is a large Metal pot ( Kettle) for cooking and/or boiling Mead (ˈmiːd is a fermented Alcoholic beverage made of Honey, Water, and Yeast. certain shrines exibit abundant evidence of ceremonial banquets: excavators of the sanctuary at Mirebeau, in northern France, found a veritable carpet of bones from butchered animals and broken pots, which appear to be the remains of feasting. Mirebeau is a commune of the Vienne département, in France. Demographics Sister cities This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. [53]
Pliny makes allusions to the moon on its sixth day, a waxing crescent moon, as an instrument of healing: here again there is corroborative evidence in that Celtic goddesses associated with healing and regeneration are sometimes depicted wearing lunar amulets; and the great temple of the healer-goddess Sulis Minerva at Bath, Somerset bears a carving of the Roman moon-goddess Luna. Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. In Greek mythology, Selene (Σελήνη " Moon " English sɛˈliːniː was an archaic Lunar deity and the daughter of the Titans Among the finds at Bath, Somerset was a lunar pendant, possibly once part of a priest’s sceptre. Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. A pendant (from Old French) is a hanging object generally attached to a Necklace or an Earring. [54]
Lastly, bull-sacrifice is attested in other evidence. Cattle were commonly used as sacrificial animals: the shrine of Gournay in Picardy was the scene of repeated ox-sacrifice and cattle were ritually slaughtered in numerous Celtic sanctuaries. Gournay is the name or part of the name of six communes of France: Gournay in the Indre département Picardy (Picardie is an historical Province of France, in the north of France. Oxen (singular ox) are Cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult castrated males [55] Bull-sacrifice is twice depicted on the Gundestrup cauldron and was probably made in the first century BC. The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel thought to date from the La Tène Period in the first century to second century BC The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. In Irish mythology, the Tarbhfhess, the ‘bull-sleep,’ was a ritual closely associated with druids. The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies : a selected individual was fed on bull flesh before being chanted to sleep by four druids; while he slept he dreamt of the next rightful High King of Ireland and when he awoke he gave this information to his druid attendants. A High King of Ireland ( Ard Rí na hÉireann) is a historical or legendary figure who claimed lordship over the whole of Ireland. [56]
Religious vocations or castes
Druids
A Druid was a member of the learned class among the ancient Celts. A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies They acted as priests, teachers, and judges. The earliest known records of the Druids come from the 3rd century BC. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC Some scholars have suggested that the Druids were the Celtic counterparts of the Brahmans of India.
Bards and filid
In Ireland the filid were visionary poets, associated with lorekeeping, versecraft, and the memorization of vast numbers of poems. FILI – Finnish Literature Exchange is an expert and export organisation which supports the translation printing and publishing of literature and promotes the awareness of Finnish literature Etymology The word is a Loanword from descendant languages of Proto-Celtic *bardos, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *gwerh2 They were also magicians, as Irish magic is intrinsically connected to poetry, and the satire of a gifted poet was a serious curse upon the one being satirized. Satire is often strictly defined as a literary genre or form; although in practice it is also found in the graphic and Performing arts In satire human A curse (also called execration) is any manner of Adversity thought to be inflicted by any supernatural power (such as a spell, a Prayer, an To run afoul of a poet was a dangerous thing indeed to a people who valued reputation and honor more than life itself.
In Ireland a "bard" was considered a lesser grade of poet than a fili - more of a minstrel and rote reciter than an inspired artist with magical powers. However in Wales bardd was the word for their visionary poets, and used in the same manner fili was in Ireland and Scotland.
The Celtic poets, of whatever grade, were composers of eulogy and satire, and a chief duty was that of composing and reciting verses on heroes and their deeds, and memorizing the genealogies of their patrons. It was essential to their livelihood that they increase the fame of their patrons, via tales, poems and songs. As early as the 1st century AD, the Latin author Lucan referred to "bards" as the national poets or minstrels of Gaul and Britain. In Gaul the institution gradually disappeared, whereas in Ireland and Wales it survived. The Irish bard through chanting preserved a tradition of poetic eulogy. In Wales, where the word bardd has always been used for poet, the bardic order was codified into distinct grades in the 10th century. Despite a decline of the order toward the end of the European Middle Ages, the Welsh tradition has persisted and is celebrated in the annual eisteddfod, a national assembly of poets and musicians. See also An eisteddfod (aɪˈstɛðvəd Welsh ə(iˈstɛðvɔd plural eisteddfodau or eisteddfods) is a Welsh Festival
Festivals
Insular sources provide important information about Celtic religious festivals. A religious festival is a time of special importance marked by adherents to that Religion. In Ireland the year was divided into two periods of six months by the feasts of Beltane (May 1) and Samhain (Samain; November 1), and each of these periods was equally divided by the feasts of Imbolc (February 1), and Lughnasadh (August 1). Beltane is the anglicized spelling of Bealtaine ( or Bealltainn ( the Gaelic names for either the month of May or the festival that takes place on Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Samhain (ˈsaʊn or /ˈsɑːwɪn/ Irish /ˈsˠaunʲ/ from the Old Irish samain) is the word for November in a few Gaelic languages Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi Imbolc is one of the four principal festivals of the Irish calendar, celebrated among Gaelic peoples and some other Celtic cultures either at the beginning Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Lughnasadh ( Old Irish, pronounced luɣnəsəð Modern Irish Lá Lúnasa; Modern Gaelic Lùnastal) is a Gaelic Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Samhain seems originally to have meant "summer," but by the early Irish period it had come to mark summer's end. Beltine is also called Cetsamain ("First Samhain"). Imbolc has been compared by the French scholar Joseph Vendryes to the Roman lustrations and apparently was a feast of purification for the farmers. Joseph Vendryes (1875-1960 was a French linguist. After studying with Antoine Meillet, he was chairman of Celtic languages and literature Beltane ("Bright Fire") was the festival of the beginning of summer, and there is a tradition that on that day the people drove their cattle between two fires as a protection against disease. Lughnasadh was the feast of the god Lugh and a celebration of the first fruits or early harvest. First Fruits are a religious Offering of the first agricultural produce of the Harvest.
The Coligny calendar has sometimes been looked to for information regarding the Gaulish year including holy days. The Gaulish Coligny Calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France ( near Lyon in 1897 along with the head of a bronze statue of Lists of holidays The words holiday or vacation have related meanings in different English-speaking countries and continents but will usually refer to one of
Beltane
Beltane is a festival held on the first day of May in Ireland and Scotland, celebrating the beginning of summer and open pasturing. Beltane is the anglicized spelling of Bealtaine ( or Bealltainn ( the Gaelic names for either the month of May or the festival that takes place on In early Irish lore a number of significant events took place on Beltane, which long remained the focus of folk traditions and tales in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man (Ellan Vannin ˈɛlʲən ˈvanɪn or Mann (Mannin) is a self-governing Crown dependency, located in the Irish Sea at the geographical Like Samhain, Beltane was seen as a time when the spirit realm is especially close at hand.
Samhain
The beginning of the month of Samhain (Old Irish samain), was one of the most important calendar festivals of the Celtic year. Samhain (ˈsaʊn or /ˈsɑːwɪn/ Irish /ˈsˠaunʲ/ from the Old Irish samain) is the word for November in a few Gaelic languages Samhain (ˈsaʊn or /ˈsɑːwɪn/ Irish /ˈsˠaunʲ/ from the Old Irish samain) is the word for November in a few Gaelic languages Old Irish is the name given to the oldest form of the Irish language, or rather the Goidelic languages, for which extensive written texts are possessed At "the three nights of Samhain", held around the beginning of November, the world of the gods and spirits was believed to be made visible to humans. The deities and spirits may play tricks on their mortal worshipers, and it was a time filled with supernatural episodes. Samhain was traditionally a time of sacrifice, whether in offering to the deities or due to the need to slaughter any livestock that it would be impossible to feed for the entire winter. Samhain was an important precursor to the later festival of Halloween, as it was a time for the Celts to honour the dead, the spirits and deities, and to face the realities and fears of the coming winter. Halloween, or Hallowe’en, is a Holiday celebrated on the night of October 31.
Syncretism with other polytheistic systems
The locus classicus for the Celtic gods of Gaul is the passage in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico (The Gallic War, 52–51 BC) in which he names six of them, together with their functions. In the Classics, Literature or Theology, locus (or locus classicus marks the first appearance of a phrase or the definitive passage that is authoritative for an idea The Gods and Goddesses or deities of the Celts are known from a variety of sources these include written Celtic mythology, ancient Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. He says that Mercury was the most honoured of all the gods and many images of him were to be found. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. Mercury was regarded as the inventor of all the arts, the patron of travellers and of merchants, and the most powerful god in matters of commerce and gain. After him the Gauls honoured Apollo, who drove away diseases, Mars, who controlled war, Jupiter, who ruled the heavens, and Minerva, who promoted handicrafts. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. The MInisterial NEtwoRk for Valorising Activities in digitisation, or MINERVA, is a European Union organization concerned with the digitisation of cultural and He adds that the Gauls regarded Dis Pater as their ancestor. Dis Pater, or Dispater, was a Roman and Celtic god of the Underworld, later subsumed by Pluto or Hades. [57]
In characteristic Roman fashion, Caesar does not refer to these figures by their native names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a procedure that greatly complicates the task of identifying his Gaulish deities with their counterparts in the insular literatures. Interpretatio graeca is a Latin term for the common tendency of Ancient Greek writers to equate foreign divinities to members of their own pantheon He also presents a neat schematic equation of god and function that is quite foreign to the vernacular literary testimony. Yet, given its limitations, his brief catalog is a valuable witness.
The gods named by Caesar are well-attested in the later epigraphic record of Gaul and Britain. Not infrequently, their names are coupled with native Celtic theonyms and epithets, such as Mercury Visucius, Lenus Mars, Jupiter Poeninus, or Sulis Minerva. Visucius was a Gallo-Roman god usually identified with Mercury. Trier Quelle am Irminenwingert632ajpg|right|thumb|300px|The spring sacred to Lenus Mars near the temple ‘Am Irminenwingert’ overlooking Trier In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped Unsyncretised theonyms are also widespread, particularly among goddesses such as Sulevia, Sirona, Rosmerta, and Epona. In ancient Celtic religion, Sulevia was a goddess worshipped in Gaul and Britain, very often in the plural forms Suleviae or (dative Sule(vis In Celtic mythology, Sirona was a Goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. In Gallo-Roman religion, Rosmerta was a goddess of fertility and abundance her attributes being those of plenty such as the Cornucopia. In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə In all, several hundred names containing a Celtic element are attested in Gaul. The majority occur only once, which has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic gods and their cults were local and tribal rather than national. Supporters of this view cite Lucan's mention of a god called Teutates, which they interpret as "god of the tribe" (it is thought that teuta- meant "tribe" in Celtic). Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Toutatis or Teutates was a Celtic god worshipped in ancient Gaul and Britain. [58] The multiplicity of deity names may also be explained otherwise – many, for example, may be simply epithets applied to major deities by widely extended cults.
Cults within Celtic polytheism
Antlered gods
A recurrent figure in Gaulish iconography is a cross-legged deity with antlers, sometimes surrounded by animals, often wearing or holding a torc. Cernunnos is a Celtic god whose representations were widespread in the ancient Celtic world A torc, also spelled torq or torque is a rigid piece of personal adornment made from twisted metal The name usually applied to him, Cernunnos, is attested only a few times, on a relief at Notre Dame de Paris (currently reading ERNUNNOS, but an early sketch shows it as having read CERNUNNOS in the 18th century), an inscription from Montagnac (αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας, "Alleteinos [dedicated this] to Karnonos of Alisontia"[59]), and a pair of identical inscriptions from Seinsel-Rëlent ("Deo Ceruninco"[60]). NotreDameFlyingButtressjpg|right|thumb|250px|Notre Dame de Paris Flying Buttress]] Notre Dame de Paris is a Gothic Cathedral on the eastern half of the There are communes that have the name Montagnac in France: In France Montagnac, a former commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Figured representations of this sort of deity, however, are widespread; the earliest known was found at Val Camonica in northern Italy, while the most famous is plate A of the Gundestrup Cauldron, a 1st-century-BC vessel found in Denmark. Valcamonica Lombard valleys of the biggest and as famous as for its battails facts in ancient stories to noble families and very honorable and men who were distinguished for letters for weapons The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel thought to date from the La Tène Period in the first century to second century BC On the Gundestrup Cauldron and sometimes elsewhere, Cernunnos, or similar figure, is accompanied by a ram-headed serpent. At Reims, the figure is depicted with a cornucopia overflowing with grains or coins. The cornucopia ( Latin: Cornu Copiae) is a symbol of food and abundance dating back to the 5th century BC, also referred to as horn 'o' plenty [58]
Healing deities
Healing deities are known from many parts of the Celtic world; they frequently have associations with thermal springs, healing wells, herbalism and light. In Irish mythology, the goddess Airmed was one of the Tuatha Dé Danann. In Celtic mythology, Belenus (also Belinus, Belenos, Belinos, Belinu, Belanu, Bellinus, Belus, In classical Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo Bormanus Bormanicus Borbanus Boruoboendua Vabusoa This article refers to the Pagan Goddess Brigid For the Catholic/Orthodox Saint of that name see Saint Brigid. In classical Celtic polytheism, Grannus (also Granus Mogounus Amarcolitanus) was a Deity associated with A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as
Brighid, the triple goddess of healing, poetry and smithcraft is perhaps the most well-known of the Insular Celtic deities of healing. She is associated with many healing springs and wells. Clootie wells (also Cloutie or Cloughtie wells) are places of Pilgrimage in Celtic areas. A lesser-known Irish healing goddess is Airmed, also associated with a healing well and with the healing art of herbalism. In Irish mythology, the goddess Airmed was one of the Tuatha Dé Danann.
In Romano-Celtic tradition Belenus (possibly from Celtic: *belen- ‘bright’, though other etymologies have been convincingly proposed[61]) is found chiefly in southern France and northern Italy. In Celtic mythology, Belenus (also Belinus, Belenos, Belinos, Belinu, Belanu, Bellinus, Belus, Southern France (or the South of France) colloquially known as Le Midi, is a loosely defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that Related categories Central Italy Southern Italy Insular Italy Northeast Italy Apollo Grannus, though concentrated in central and eastern Gaul, also “occurs associated with medicinal waters in Brittany [. In classical Celtic polytheism, Grannus (also Granus Mogounus Amarcolitanus) was a Deity associated with . . ] and far away in the Danube Basin”. [62] Grannus's companion is frequently the goddess Sirona. In Celtic mythology, Sirona was a Goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. Another important Celtic deity of healing is Bormo/Borvo, particularly associated with thermal springs such as Bourbonne-les-Bains and Bourbon-Lancy. In classical Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo Bormanus Bormanicus Borbanus Boruoboendua Vabusoa In classical Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo Bormanus Bormanicus Borbanus Boruoboendua Vabusoa Bourbonne-les-Bains is a Spa town of eastern France, in the Champagne-Ardenne région, Haute-Marne département Bourbon-Lancy is a commune of the Saône-et-Loire département, in France. Such hot springs were (and often still are) believed to have therapeutic value. Green interprets the name Borvo to mean “seething, bubbling or boiling spring water”. [62]
Goddesses of sacred waters
In Ireland, there are numerous holy wells dedicated to the goddess Brighid. In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped In Gallo-Roman religion, Damona was a Goddess worshipped in Gaul as the consort of Apollo Borvo and of Apollo Moritasgus In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world This article refers to the Pagan Goddess Brigid For the Catholic/Orthodox Saint of that name see Saint Brigid. There are dedications to ‘Minerva’ in Britain and throughout the Celtic areas of the Continent. The MInisterial NEtwoRk for Valorising Activities in digitisation, or MINERVA, is a European Union organization concerned with the digitisation of cultural and At Bath Minerva was identified with the goddess Sulis, whose cult there centred on the thermal springs. Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped
Other goddesses were also associated with sacred springs, such as Icovellauna among the Treveri and Coventina at Carrawburgh. Icovellauna was a Celtic goddess worshipped in Gaul. Her places of worship included a temple in Metz, originally built over a spring a cult centre in The Treveri or Treviri were a tribe of Gauls who inhabited the lower valley of the Moselle, within the southern fringes of the Arduenna Silva Coventina was a Romano-British goddess of wells and springs She is known from multiple inscriptions at one site in Northumberland county of the United Kingdom Carrawburgh is a village in Northumberland. In Roman times it was the site of a 3½ acre (1 Damona and Bormana also serve this function in companionship with the spring-god Borvo (see above). In Gallo-Roman religion, Damona was a Goddess worshipped in Gaul as the consort of Apollo Borvo and of Apollo Moritasgus Bormana is a Celtic goddess, the female equivalent of the god Borvo (Bormanus
A number of goddesses were deified rivers, notably Boann (of the River Boyne), Sinann (the River Shannon), Sequana (the deified Seine), Matrona (the Marne), Souconna (the deified Saône) and perhaps Belisama (the Ribble). Boann (or Boand) is the Irish mythology goddess of the River Boyne, a river in Leinster, Ireland. The River Boyne ( Abhainn na Bóinne) is a river in Leinster, Ireland, the course of which is about 112 Kilometres (70 Miles long The River Shannon ( Sionainn or Sionna in Irish) is at 386 km (240 miles the longest river in Ireland. The River Shannon ( Sionainn or Sionna in Irish) is at 386 km (240 miles the longest river in Ireland. In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe The Seine (sɛn in French) is a slow flowing major River and commercial waterway within the regions of Île-de-France and Haute-Normandie In Celtic mythology, Dea Matrona ("divine mother goddess" was the Goddess of the river Marne in Gaul. Marne is a department in north-eastern France named after the Marne River which flows through the department The Saône (son ( Sona in Arpitan) is a River of eastern France. The Saône (son ( Sona in Arpitan) is a River of eastern France. Belisana is also a spider genus ( Pholcidae) In Celtic mythology, Belisama (also Bηλησαμα or Belesama The River Ribble is a river that runs through North Yorkshire and Lancashire, in the North of England.
While the most well-known deity of the sea is the god Manannán, possible early Irish sea goddesses include Fand, her sister Lí Ban, and the mother-goddess of the Fomorians, Domnu. In Celtic mythology, Manannán mac Lir is the god of the sea He is often seen as a Psychopomp, and considered to have strong connections to the Otherworld Fand is an early Irish sea goddess later described as a "Queen of the Fairies " For the Chinese prince see Li Ban (李班 For the country whose French name is Liban, see Lebanon. In Irish mythology, the Fomorians, Fomors, or Fomori ( Irish Fomóiri, Fomóraig) were a semi-divine race who inhabited
Goddesses of horses
The horse, an instrument of Indo-European expansion, plays a part in all the mythologies of the various Celtic cultures. In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə Macha (/ˈmaxə/ is a presumed Goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war horses sovereignty and the sites of Armagh and Emain Macha In the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology Rhiannon is the horse goddess reminiscent of Epona from Gaulish religion. The cult of the Gaulish horse goddess Epona was widespread. In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə Adopted by the Roman cavalry, it spread throughout much of Europe, even to Rome itself. She seems to be the embodiment of "horse power" or horsemanship, which was likely perceived as a power vital for the success and protection of the tribe. She has insular analogues in the Welsh Rhiannon and in the Irish Édaín Echraidhe (echraidhe, "horse riding") and Macha, who outran the fastest steeds. In the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology Rhiannon is the horse goddess reminiscent of Epona from Gaulish religion. Macha (/ˈmaxə/ is a presumed Goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war horses sovereignty and the sites of Armagh and Emain Macha
The Welsh horse goddess Rhiannon is best known from The Mabinogion, a collection of medieval Welsh tales, in which she makes her first appearance on a pale, mysterious steed and meets King Pwyll, whom she later marries. Middle Welsh (Cymraeg Canol is the label attached to the Welsh language of the 12th to 14th centuries of which much more remains than for any earlier This article is about the Welsh hero for the impact crater on Europa, see Pwyll (crater. She was accused of killing and devouring her infant son, and in punishment she was forced to act as a horse and to carry visitors to the royal court. According to another story, she was made to wear the collars of asses about her neck in the manner of a beast.
The Irish horse goddess Macha, perhaps a threefold goddess herself, is associated with battle and sovereignty. Macha (/ˈmaxə/ is a presumed Goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war horses sovereignty and the sites of Armagh and Emain Macha Though a goddess in her own right, she is also considered to be part of the triple goddess of battle and slaughter, the Morrígan. The Morrígan ("terror" or "phantom queen" or Mórrígan ("great queen" (also known as Morrígu, Morríghan, Mor-Ríoghain Other faces of the Morrígan were Badhbh Catha and Nemain. In Irish mythology, the Badb (/baðβ/ " Crow " in Old Irish; modern Irish Badhbh /bəiv/ means " Vulture " In Irish mythology, Nemain (or Nemhain, Nemon or Neman) is the Fairy Spirit of the frenzied havoc of war and possibly
Mother goddesses
Mother goddesses are a recurrent feature in Celtic religions. A mother goddess is a Goddess, often portrayed as the Earth Mother who serves as a general Fertility deity the bountiful embodiment of the Earth. The epigraphic record reveals many dedications to the Matres or Matronae, which are particularly prolific around Cologne in the Rhineland. The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. [63] Iconographically, Celtic mothers may appear singly or, quite often, triply; they usually hold fruit or cornucopiae or paterae;[58] they may also be full-breasted (or many-breasted) figures nursing infants. In ancient Indo-European mythologies various Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear as a triad, either as three separate beings
Welsh and Irish tradition preserve a number of mother figures such as the Welsh Dôn, Rhiannon (‘great queen’) and Modron (from Matrona, ‘great mother’), and the Irish Danu, Boand, Macha and Ernmas. Dôn ( Welsh pronunciation /doːn/ was a Welsh mother Goddess. In the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology Rhiannon is the horse goddess reminiscent of Epona from Gaulish religion. In Welsh mythology, Modron ("divine mother" was a daughter of Avalloc, derived from the Gaulish Goddess Matrona. Boann (or Boand) is the Irish mythology goddess of the River Boyne, a river in Leinster, Ireland. Macha (/ˈmaxə/ is a presumed Goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war horses sovereignty and the sites of Armagh and Emain Macha Ernmas is an Irish mother Goddess, mentioned in Lebor Gabála Érenn and " Cath Maige Tuired " as one of the Tuatha Dé However, all of these goddesses fulfill many roles in the mythology and symbolism of the Celts, and cannot be limited only to motherhood. In many of their tales, their having children is only mentioned in passing, and is not a central facet of their identity. "Mother" Goddesses may also be Goddesses of warfare and slaughter, or of healing and smithcraft.
Mother goddesses were at times symbols of sovereignty, creativity, birth, fertility, sexual union and nurturing. At other times they could be seen as punishers and destroyers: their offspring may be helpful or dangerous to the community, and the circumstances of their birth may lead to curses, geasa or hardship, such as in the case of Macha's curse of the Ulstermen or Rhiannon's possible devouring of her child and subsequent punishment. In Irish mythology and folklore a geis ( plural geasa) is an idiosyncratic Taboo, whether of obligation or prohibition similar to being under
Divine couples
One notable feature of Gaulish and Romano-Celtic sculpture is the frequent appearance of male and female deities in pairs, such as Rosmerta and ‘Mercury’, Nantosuelta and Sucellos, Sirona and Apollo Grannus, Borvo and Damona, or Mars Loucetius and Nemetona. In Gallo-Roman religion, Rosmerta was a goddess of fertility and abundance her attributes being those of plenty such as the Cornucopia. In Gaulish religion, Nantosuelta was a goddess of nature the earth fire and fertility in Gaul. In Gaulish religion, Sucellus or Sucellos was the God of Agriculture, Forests and alcoholic drinks of the Gauls also part In Celtic mythology, Sirona was a Goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. In classical Celtic polytheism, Grannus (also Granus Mogounus Amarcolitanus) was a Deity associated with In classical Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo Bormanus Bormanicus Borbanus Boruoboendua Vabusoa In Gallo-Roman religion, Damona was a Goddess worshipped in Gaul as the consort of Apollo Borvo and of Apollo Moritasgus In Gallo-Roman religion, Loucetios ( Latinized as Leucetius) was a Gaulish god invariably identified with Mars. In ancient Celtic religion, Nemetona ("shrine" was a goddess worshipped in eastern Gaul and Roman Britain. [63]
Cult of Lugh
According to Caesar the god most honoured by the Gauls was ‘Mercury’, and this is confirmed by numerous images and inscriptions. Lugus was a deity apparently worshipped widely in antiquity in the Celtic -speaking world Lugh (ˈluː modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish Deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant Lleu Llaw Gyffes (/ɬeɨ ɬau gəfes/ sometimes misspelled Llew Llaw Gyffes is a figure of Welsh mythology. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. Mercury's name is often coupled with Celtic epithets, particularly in eastern and central Gaul; the commonest such names include Visucius, Cissonius, and Gebrinius. Visucius was a Gallo-Roman god usually identified with Mercury. Cissonius (also Cisonius, Cesonius) was an ancient Gaulish god Gebrinius is a local Celtic version of the god Mercury. In the 2nd century AD an altar was set up at Bonn to honour him [63] Another name, Lugus, is inferred from the recurrent place-name Lugdunon ('the fort of Lugus') from which the modern Lyon, Laon, and Loudun in France and Leiden in The Netherlands derive their names; a similar element can be found in Carlisle (formerly Castra Luguvallium) and Legnica in Poland. Lugus was a deity apparently worshipped widely in antiquity in the Celtic -speaking world Toponymy refers to the scientific study of place-names ( toponyms) their origins meanings use and Typology. ||-||} Lyon, also known as Lyons in English is a city in east-central France. Laon (lɑ̃ is a city and commune in Picardie in northern France, préfecture (capital} of the Aisne department Loudun is a small town and commune of approximately 9000 inhabitants in the Vienne département and in the Poitou-Charentes This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. "Leyden" redirects here For other uses see Leyden (disambiguation. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Carlisle (pronounced CARLYLE(emphasis on the first syllable is a City in northern England the largest settlement in Cumbria. Legnica (Liegnitz is a City on the Kaczawa river in Lower Silesia in south-western Poland. The Irish and Welsh cognates of Lugus are Lugh and Lleu, respectively, and certain traditions concerning these figures mesh neatly with those of the Gaulish god. Lugh (ˈluː modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish Deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant Lleu Llaw Gyffes (/ɬeɨ ɬau gəfes/ sometimes misspelled Llew Llaw Gyffes is a figure of Welsh mythology. Caesar's description of the latter as "the inventor of all the arts" might almost have been a paraphrase of Lugh's conventional epithet samildánach ("possessed of many talents"), while Lleu is addressed as "master of the twenty crafts" in the Mabinogi. [41] An episode in the Irish tale of the Battle of Magh Tuiredh is a dramatic exposition of Lugh's claim to be master of all the arts and crafts. Cath Maige Tuired ("The Battle of Mag Tuired" is the name of two saga texts of the Mythological Cycle of Irish Mythology. [64] Inscriptions in Spain and Switzerland, one of them from a guild of shoemakers, are dedicated to Lugoves, widely interpreted as a plural of Lugus perhaps referring to the god conceived in triple form.
The Gaulish Mercury often seems to function as a god of sovereignty. Gaulish depictions of Mercury sometimes show him bearded and/or with wings or horns emerging directly from his head, rather than from a winged hat. Both these characteristics are unusual for the classical god. More conventionally, the Gaulish Mercury is usually shown accompanied by a ram and/or a rooster, and carrying a caduceus; his depiction at times is very classical. The caduceus (/kəˈdjuːsiəs/ -ʃəs -ˈduː- κηρύκειον in Greek) or wand of Hermes is typically depicted as a short herald's staff [58]
Lugh is said to have instituted the festival of Lughnasadh, celebrated on 1 August, in commemoration of his foster-mother Tailtiu. Lughnasadh ( Old Irish, pronounced luɣnəsəð Modern Irish Lá Lúnasa; Modern Gaelic Lùnastal) is a Gaelic Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Tailtiu ( Old Irish pronunciation /ˈtalʲtʲu/ also written Tailltiu Tailte Teia Tephi Can we get a source for this odd variant? The only ones I [65]
In Gaulish monuments and inscriptions, Mercury is very often accompanied by Rosmerta, whom Miranda Green interprets to be a goddess of fertility and prosperity. In Gallo-Roman religion, Rosmerta was a goddess of fertility and abundance her attributes being those of plenty such as the Cornucopia. Miranda Jane Aldhouse-Green is a professor of Archaeology at the University of Wales Newport. Green also notices that the Celtic Mercury frequently accompanies the Deae Matres (see below). [62]
Cult of Taranis
The Gaulish Jupiter is often depicted with a thunderbolt in one hand and a distinctive wheel in the other. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Scholars frequently identify this wheel/sky god with Taranis, who is mentioned by Lucan. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman The name Taranis may be cognate with those of Taran, a minor figure in Welsh mythology, and Turenn, the father of the 'three gods of Dana' in Irish mythology. Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts In Irish mythology, Tuireann or Tuirill Biccreo was the father of Creidhne, Luchtaine and Giobhniu by Brigid. In Goidelic mythology, and especially in Scotland, Brian was a pompous man who helped Cailleach rescue Deò-ghrèine. The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings
Cult of Toutatis
Teutates, also spelled Toutatis (Celtic: "god of the tribe"), was one of three Celtic gods mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in the 1st century,[66] the other two being Esus ("lord") and Taranis ("thunderer"). Toutatis or Teutates was a Celtic god worshipped in ancient Gaul and Britain. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Esus or Hesus ("lord" or "master" was a Gaulish god known from two monumental statues and a line in Lucan 's Bellum civile In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus According to later commentators, victims sacrificed to Teutates were killed by being plunged headfirst into a vat filled with an unspecified liquid. Present-day scholars frequently speak of ‘the toutates’ as plural, referring respectively to the patrons of the several tribes. [58] Of two later commentators on Lucan's text, one identifies Teutates with Mercury, the other with Mars. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. He is also known from dedications in Britain, where his name was written Toutatis.
Paul-Marie Duval, who considers the Gaulish Mars a syncretism with the Celtic toutates, notes that:
| “ | Les représentations de Mars, beaucoup plus rares [que celles de Mercure] (une trentaine de bas-reliefs), plus monotones dans leur académisme classique, et ses surnoms plus de deux fois plus nombreux (une cinquantaine) s'équilibrent pour mettre son importance à peu près sur le même plan que celle de Mercure mais sa domination n'est pas de même nature. (“Mars' representations, much rarer [than Mercury's] (thirty-odd bas reliefs) and more monotone in their studied classicism, and his epithets which are more than twice as numerous (about fifty), balance each other to place his importance roughly on the same level as Mercury, but his domination is not of the same kind. ” Duval 1993:71)[58] |
” |
Cult of Esus
Esus appears in two monumental statues as an axeman cutting branches from trees. Esus or Hesus ("lord" or "master" was a Gaulish god known from two monumental statues and a line in Lucan 's Bellum civile A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or
Gods with hammers
Sucellos, the 'good striker' is usually portrayed as a middle-aged bearded man, with a long-handled hammer, or perhaps a beer barrel suspended from a pole. In Gaulish religion, Sucellus or Sucellos was the God of Agriculture, Forests and alcoholic drinks of the Gauls also part Middle age is the period of life beyond Young adulthood but before the onset of Old age. A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object The most common uses are for driving nails fitting parts and breaking up objects A barrel or cask is a hollow cylindrical container traditionally made of Wood Staves and bound with Iron Hoops The His companion, Nantosuelta, is sometimes depicted alongside him. In Gaulish religion, Nantosuelta was a goddess of nature the earth fire and fertility in Gaul. When together, they are accompanied by symbols associated with prosperity and domesticity. This figure is often identified with Silvanus, worshipped in southern Gaul under similar attributes; Dis Pater, from whom, according to Caesar, all the Gauls believed themselves to be descended; and the Irish Dagda, the 'good god', who possessed a caldron that was never empty and a huge club. Dis Pater, or Dispater, was a Roman and Celtic god of the Underworld, later subsumed by Pluto or Hades.
Gods of strength and eloquence
A club-wielding god identified as Ogmios is readily observed in Gaulish iconography. Ogmios was a Gaulish Deity, who Lucian records was depicted as a bald old man with a bow and club leading an apparently happy band of men with chains attached Ogmios was a Gaulish Deity, who Lucian records was depicted as a bald old man with a bow and club leading an apparently happy band of men with chains attached In Gaul, he was identified with the Roman Hercules. He was portrayed as an old man with swarthy skin and armed with a bow and club. He was also a god of eloquence, and in that aspect he was represented as drawing along a company of men whose ears were chained to his tongue.
Ogmios' Irish equivalent was Ogma, who was impressively portrayed as a swarthy man whose battle ardour was so great that he had to be controlled by chains held by other warriors until the right moment. Ogma or Oghma is a character from Irish mythology. A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, he is often considered a Deity and may be related to the Ogham script, an Irish writing system dating from the 4th century AD, was said to have been invented by him. Ogham (ogam ˈɔɣam Modern Irish or, English) is an Early Medieval Alphabet used primarily to represent the Old Irish language (and A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century
The divine bull
Another prominent zoomorphic deity type is the divine bull. In ancient Gaul, Tarvos Trigaranus was a bull God. An alternative spelling is Taruos Trigaranos since the Latin script did not distinguish Tarvos Trigaranus ("bull with three cranes") is pictured on reliefs from the cathedral at Trier, Germany, and at Notre-Dame de Paris. In ancient Gaul, Tarvos Trigaranus was a bull God. An alternative spelling is Taruos Trigaranos since the Latin script did not distinguish Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. NotreDameFlyingButtressjpg|right|thumb|250px|Notre Dame de Paris Flying Buttress]] Notre Dame de Paris is a Gothic Cathedral on the eastern half of the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city In Irish literature, the Donn Cuailnge ("Brown Bull of Cooley") plays a central role in the epic Táin Bó Cuailnge ("The Cattle-Raid of Cooley"). For a comparatively small island Ireland has made a disproportionate contribution to World literature in all its branches In the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology Donn Cúailnge, the Brown Bull of Cooley, was an extremely fertile stud bull over whom the Táin Bó Cúailnge
The ram-headed snake
A distinctive ram-headed snake accompanies Gaulish gods in a number of representations, including the horned god from the Gundestrup cauldron, Mercury, and Mars. Horned gods, with Horns or Antlers appear in various cultures The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel thought to date from the La Tène Period in the first century to second century BC
Deities
This table shows some of the Celtic and Romano-Celtic gods and goddesses mentioned above, in Romanized form as well as ancient Gaulish or British names as well as those of the Tuatha Dé Danann and characters from the Mabinogion. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities The Tuatha Dé Danann ("peoples of the Goddess Danu " Modern Irish pronunciation /t̪ˠuːəhə dʲeː d̪ˠan̪ˠən̪ˠ/ Old Irish /tuːaθa ðʲeː They are arranged so as to suggest some linguistic or functional associations among the ancient gods and literary figures; needless to say, all such associations are subject to continual scholarly revision and disagreement. In particular, it has been noted by scholars such as Sjoestedt that it is inappropriate to try to fit Insular Celtic deities into a Roman format as such attempts seriously distort the Insular deities.
| Interpretatio romana |
Gaulish/British | Irish | Welsh |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arianrhod | |||
| Apollo | Belenus Borvo Grannus |
||
| Victoria | Bodua | ||
| Bran | Brân | ||
| Bacchus | Cernunnos | ||
| Epona | Macha | Rhiannon | |
| Esus | |||
| Vulcan | Gobannos | Goibniu | Gofannon |
| Mercury Uiducus | Gwydion | ||
| Mercury | Lugus | Lug | Lleu |
| Neptune | Manannán | Manawydan | |
| Apollo | Maponos | Maccan | Mabon |
| Matronae | Modron | ||
| Lamiae | The Morrígan | ||
| Mars | Nodens | Nuadu | Lludd/Nudd |
| Hercules | Ogmios | Ogma | |
| Pryderi | |||
| Pwyll | |||
| Maia | Rosmerta | ||
| Hygieia | Sirona | ||
| Silvanus | Sucellus | the Dagda | |
| Minerva | Sulis Coventina Icovellauna Sequana |
||
| Junones | Suleviae | ||
| Jupiter | Taranis | Turenn | Taran |
| Mars | Toutatis | ||
| Veteris |
The effect of Christianity
The conversion to Christianity inevitably had a profound effect on this socio-religious system from the 5th century onward, though its character can only be extrapolated from documents of considerably later date. Arianrhod is a figure in Welsh mythology who plays her most important role in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi. In Celtic mythology, Belenus (also Belinus, Belenos, Belinos, Belinu, Belanu, Bellinus, Belus, In classical Celtic polytheism, Borvo (also Bormo Bormanus Bormanicus Borbanus Boruoboendua Vabusoa In classical Celtic polytheism, Grannus (also Granus Mogounus Amarcolitanus) was a Deity associated with In Roman mythology, Victoria was the personification/Goddess of victory Catubodua ("battle- Crow " is a Gaulish Goddess known from a single inscription in Haute Savoie, eastern France. Bran the Blessed ( Welsh: Bendigeidfran, literally "Blessed Crow" is a giant and king of Britain in Welsh mythology. In Classical mythology, Dionysus or Dionysos (in Greek, Διόνυσος or Διώνυσος; associated with Roman Cernunnos is a Celtic god whose representations were widespread in the ancient Celtic world In Gallo-Roman religion Celtic mythology without citing a specific instance of Celtic mythology where Epona appears please --> Epona '''po''' nə Macha (/ˈmaxə/ is a presumed Goddess of ancient Ireland, associated with war horses sovereignty and the sites of Armagh and Emain Macha In the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology Rhiannon is the horse goddess reminiscent of Epona from Gaulish religion. Esus or Hesus ("lord" or "master" was a Gaulish god known from two monumental statues and a line in Lucan 's Bellum civile In ancient Roman religion and Hellenic neopaganism, Vulcan is the god of beneficial and hindering fire including the fire of Volcanoes He is also Gobannus (or Gobannos, the Gaulish form was a Gallo-Roman god whose name denoting "the smith" is normally taken to identify him as Patron In Irish mythology Goibniu or Goibhniu (pronounced /ˈgovʲnʲu/ or 'Goive-nu' was a son of Brigid and Tuireann and the smith of For the Wales settlement see Gobannium. Gofannon was one of the deities worshipped by the ancient Celts. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. Lugus was a deity apparently worshipped widely in antiquity in the Celtic -speaking world Lugh (ˈluː modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish Deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant Lleu Llaw Gyffes (/ɬeɨ ɬau gəfes/ sometimes misspelled Llew Llaw Gyffes is a figure of Welsh mythology. Neptune (Neptūnus is the god of water and the sea in Roman mythology, a brother of Jupiter and Pluto. In Celtic mythology, Manannán mac Lir is the god of the sea He is often seen as a Psychopomp, and considered to have strong connections to the Otherworld In Welsh mythology, Manawydan, son of Llyr, is the equivalent of the Irish Manannan mac Lir and a presumed sea god. In ancient Celtic religion, Maponos or Maponus ("divine son" was a god of youth known mainly in northern Britain but also in Gaul. For similar names see Angus (disambiguation. In Irish mythology, Aengus ( Áengus, Óengus, Aonghus In Welsh mythology, Mabon ("divine son" was the son of Modron ("divine mother" In Welsh mythology, Modron ("divine mother" was a daughter of Avalloc, derived from the Gaulish Goddess Matrona. In Greek mythology, Lamia was a Queen of Libya who became a child-murdering daemon. The Morrígan ("terror" or "phantom queen" or Mórrígan ("great queen" (also known as Morrígu, Morríghan, Mor-Ríoghain Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. Nodens ( Nudens, Nodons) is a Celtic Deity associated with healing the sea hunting and dogs Lludd Llaw Eraint, "Lludd of the Silver Hand" son of Beli Mawr, is a legendary hero from Welsh mythology. Lludd Llaw Eraint, "Lludd of the Silver Hand" son of Beli Mawr, is a legendary hero from Welsh mythology. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. Ogmios was a Gaulish Deity, who Lucian records was depicted as a bald old man with a bow and club leading an apparently happy band of men with chains attached Ogma or Oghma is a character from Irish mythology. A member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, he is often considered a Deity and may be related to the Pryderi is the son of Pwyll and Rhiannon in Welsh mythology, and a king of Dyfed. This article is about the Welsh hero for the impact crater on Europa, see Pwyll (crater. Maia (/ˈmeɪə/ in Greek mythology, was the eldest of the Pleiades, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione. In Gallo-Roman religion, Rosmerta was a goddess of fertility and abundance her attributes being those of plenty such as the Cornucopia. In Greek mythology, Hygieia ( or Hygeia ( was a daughter of Asclepius. In Celtic mythology, Sirona was a Goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. Silvanus ( Latin: "of the woods" was a Roman tutelary spirit of woods a Genius loci that was apparently inherited from the youthful In Gaulish religion, Sucellus or Sucellos was the God of Agriculture, Forests and alcoholic drinks of the Gauls also part The MInisterial NEtwoRk for Valorising Activities in digitisation, or MINERVA, is a European Union organization concerned with the digitisation of cultural and In localised Celtic polytheism practiced in Britain Sul or Sulis was the deification of the thermal spring-water of Bath Somerset, where she was worshipped Coventina was a Romano-British goddess of wells and springs She is known from multiple inscriptions at one site in Northumberland county of the United Kingdom Icovellauna was a Celtic goddess worshipped in Gaul. Her places of worship included a temple in Metz, originally built over a spring a cult centre in In Gallo-Roman religion, Sequana was the Goddess of the river Seine, particularly the springs at the source of the Seine and the Gaulish tribe In Roman mythology, every man had a genius and every woman a juno ( Juno was also the name of the queen of the gods In ancient Celtic religion, Sulevia was a goddess worshipped in Gaul and Britain, very often in the plural forms Suleviae or (dative Sule(vis In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of Thunder worshipped in Gaul, Britain and Hispania and mentioned along with Esus In Irish mythology, Tuireann or Tuirill Biccreo was the father of Creidhne, Luchtaine and Giobhniu by Brigid. Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. Toutatis or Teutates was a Celtic god worshipped in ancient Gaul and Britain. 1 Veteris ( Lucius Vitellius Veteris the elder (before 5 BC-51 was the youngest of four sons of quaestor Publius Vitellius and the only one of them not to die through Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. By the early 7th century the church had succeeded in relegating Irish druids to ignominious irrelevancy, while the filidh, masters of traditional learning, operated in easy harmony with their clerical counterparts, contriving at the same time to retain a considerable part of their pre-Christian tradition, social status, and privilege. FILI – Finnish Literature Exchange is an expert and export organisation which supports the translation printing and publishing of literature and promotes the awareness of Finnish literature In Sociology or Anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in Society (one's Social position) But virtually all the vast corpus of early vernacular literature that has survived was written down in monastic scriptoria, and it is part of the task of modern scholarship to identify the relative roles of traditional continuity and ecclesiastical innovation as reflected in the written texts. Vernacular literature is Literature written in the Vernacular - the speech of the "common people" Scriptorium, literally "a place for writing" is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval European Monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic Cormac's Glossary (c. The Sanas Cormaic ( Cormac's Glossary; sometimes called Sanas Chormaic using modern rules of initial Consonant mutation) is an Irish 900) recounts that St. Patrick banished those mantic rites of the filidh that involved offerings to "demons", and it seems probable that the church took particular pains to stamp out animal sacrifice and other rituals repugnant to Christian teaching. Animal Sacrifice is the Ritual killing of an Animal as part of a Religion. What survived of ancient ritual practice tended to be related to filidhecht, the traditional repertoire of the filidh, or to the central institution of sacral kingship. A good example is the pervasive and persistent concept of the hierogamy (sacred marriage) of the king with the goddess of sovereignty: the sexual union, or banais ríghi ("wedding of kingship"), which constituted the core of the royal inauguration seems to have been purged from the ritual at an early date through ecclesiastical influence, but it remains at least implicit, and often quite explicit, for many centuries in the literary tradition. Hieros Gamos ( Greek ιερός γάμος, "holy wedding" or Hierogamy (Greek ιερογαμία, again "holy wedding"
Nagy has noted the Gaelic oral tradition has been remarkably conservative. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges The fact that we have tales in existence which were still being told in the 19th century in almost exactly the same form as they exist in ancient manuscripts leads to the strong probability that much of what the monks recorded was considerably older. Though the Christian interpolations in some of these tales are very obvious, many of them read like afterthoughts or footnotes to the main body of the tales, which most likely preserve traditions far older than the manuscripts themselves.
Mythology based on (though, not identical to) the pre-Christian religion is still common place knowledge in Celtic-speaking cultures. Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age Various rituals involving acts of pilgrimage to sites such as hills and sacred wells which are believed to have curative or otherwise beneficial properties are still performed. Clootie wells (also Cloutie or Cloughtie wells) are places of Pilgrimage in Celtic areas. Based on evidence from the European continent, various figures which are still known in folklore in the Celtic countries up to today, or who take part in post-Christian mythology, are known to have also been worshipped in those areas that did not have records before Christianity. Celtic nations are areas of modern northwest Europe which identify themselves with the Celtic cultures specifically speakers of Celtic languages.
Revival
Various groups claim association with Celtic polytheism. These groups range from the Reconstructionists, who work to practice ancient Celtic religion with as much accuracy as possible; to new age, eclectic groups who take some of their inspiration from Celtic mythology but place little significance on any sort of historical precedent. Polytheistic reconstructionism, or simply Reconstructionism, is an approach to Neopaganism first emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s and gatherig momentum New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature
Celtic Reconstructionism
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism is an effort to reconstruct, in a modern Celtic cultural context, Celtic polytheistic practices from surviving written, archaeological and cultural examples of Celtic polytheism. Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (CR is a polytheistic, animistic, religious and cultural movement
Neo-druidism and Wicca
Modern eclectic religions such as Wicca and Neo-druidism place little emphasis on historical basis or reconstruction, instead blending many outside influences into a modern religion that draws little influence from, or resemblance to, historical Celtic polytheism outside of borrowed imagery or terminology. Neo-druidism or neo-druidry (referred to simply as Druidry by some adherents is a form of modern Spirituality or Religion that promotes
See also
References
- ^ Wood, Juliette. Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals Celtic mythology is the Mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the Religion of the Iron Age Celts Like other Iron Age The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic" a branch of the greater Indo-European Language family. Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel thought to date from the La Tène Period in the first century to second century BC The Mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity, but much of it was preserved shorn of its religious meanings European Bronze Age and Iron Age helmets with horns are known from a few depictions and even fewer actual finds Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European (IE peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European Welsh mythology, the remnants of the Mythology of the pre Christian Britons, has come down to us in much altered form in medieval Welsh manuscripts ‘Introduction. ’ In Squire, C. (2000). The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance. London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth Editions Ltd. ISBN 1-84022-500-9. Page 12-13
- ^ Wood, Juliette. ‘Introduction. ’ In Squire, C. (2000). The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance. London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth Editions Ltd. ISBN 1-84022-500-9. Page 12-13
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Wood, Juliette. ‘Introduction. ’ In Squire, C. (2000). The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance. London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth Editions Ltd. ISBN 1-84022-500-9. Page 12-13
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Wood, Juliette. ‘Introduction. ’ In Squire, C. (2000). The mythology of the British Islands: an introduction to Celtic myth, legend, poetry and romance London & Ware: UCL & Wordsworth Editions Ltd. ISBN 1-84022-500-9. Page 12-13
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 30
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 30
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 25
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 25
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 26
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 26
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 27
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 27-28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 28
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 29
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 24
- ^ Barry Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 208-210. ISBN 0-19-815010-5.
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico]] 5:14
- ^ James MacKillop, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 21, 205, 270, 322-3, 346, 359-60. ISBN 0-19-280120-1.
- ^ a b Patrick K. Ford (ed/trans), The Mabinogi and other Medieval Welsh Tales, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1977. ISBN 0-520-03414-7
- ^ MacKillop 1998, pp. 147-9
- ^ MacKillop 1998, pp. 19-20
- ^ Marie-Louise Sjoestedt, Gods and Heroes of the Celts, translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation, 1982, p. 17. ISBN 0-913666-52-1.
- ^ Myles Dillon, Early Irish Literature, Dublin, Four Courts Press, 1994, p. 11. ISBN 1-85182-117-5
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 18-19
- ^ Natural History (Pliny), XVI, 95
- ^ Green, Miranda J. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 32
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 56
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 18-19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Green, Miranda J. (2005) Exploring the world of the druids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28571-3. Page 19
- ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 6:17-18
- ^ a b c d e f Paul-Marie Duval, Les dieux de la Gaule, Éditions Payot, Paris, 1993. Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. ISBN 2-228-88621-1
- ^ Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises I (1985), pp. 318-325.
- ^ L'Année Épigraphique 1987, no. 772.
- ^ Peter Schrijver, "On Henbane and Early European Narcotics", Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie vol. 51 (1999), pp. 17-45
- ^ a b c Miranda Green. 1986. The Gods of the Celts. Alan Sutton, Gloucs. ISBN 0-86299-292-3
- ^ a b c Jufer, Nicole & Thierry Luginbühl (2001). Les dieux gaulois : répertoire des noms de divinités celtiques connus par l'épigraphie, les textes antiques et la toponymie. Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-200-7.
- ^ Elizabeth A. Gray (ed/trans). 1982. Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired. Irish Texts Society (Vol. LII), Naas, Co Kildare
- ^ R. A. Stewart Macalister (ed/trans). 1941. Lebor Gabála Érenn: The Book of the Taking of Ireland. Part IV. Irish Texts Society (Vol. XLI), Dublin.
- ^ Marcus Annaeus Lucanus. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman c. 61-65. Year 61 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 65 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Bellum civile, Book I, ll. Pharsalia was also an ancient district in Greece in which Pharsalus was located 498-501. Online translation
Further reading
- de Vries, Jan (1961) Keltische Religion, a comprehensive survey
- Duval, Paul-Marie (1976) Les Dieux de la Gaule, new ed. updated and enlarged.
- Green, Miranda (1986, revised 2004) Gods of the Celts,
- Mac Cana, Proinsias (1970) Celtic Mythology, copious illustrations.
- Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition, tales and analysis in Gaelic and English.
- O'Rahilly, Thomas F. (1946, reissued 1971) Early Irish History and Mythology
- Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise (1949, reissued 1982; originally published in French, 1940) Gods and Heroes of the Celts comparisons between deities of the various Celtic cultures vs Classical models.
- Stercks, Claude (1986) Éléments de cosmogonie celtique, contains an interpretive essay on the goddess Epona and related deities.
- Vendryès, Joseph; Tonnelat, Ernest; Unbegaun, B. -O. (1948) Les Religions des Celtes, des Germains et des anciens Slaves.
External links
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