Cellulose, a linear polymer of D-glucose linked by β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. In Chemistry, a glycosidic bond is a certain type of Functional group that joins a Carbohydrate (sugar molecule to another which may be another carbohydrate

Three-dimensional structure of cellulose, with four glucose units visible. (Black=carbon; red=oxygen; white=hydrogen. )

Space-filling model of cellulose, with four glucose units visible

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)_n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over nine thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. ^[1][2]

Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A biofilm is a structured community of Microorganisms encapsulated within a self-developed polymeric matrix and adherent to a living or inert surface Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90 percent and that of wood is 50 percent). Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp ^[3]

For industrial use, cellulose is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton. Wood pulp is a dry fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating the fibers which make up Wood. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp It is mainly used to produce cardboard and paper; to a smaller extent it is converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Cardboard is a generic non-specific term for a heavy duty Paper based product Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging Cellophane is a thin transparent sheet made of regenerated Cellulose. Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic Fiber. Rayon is produced from naturally occurring Polymers and therefore it is not a truly

Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts. Physiologically a ruminant is a Mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first stomach known The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Cellulose is not digestible by humans and is often referred to as 'dietary fiber' or 'roughage', acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the Digestive system, absorbing water and easing Defecation. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus

History

Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Anselme Payen ( January 6, 1795 - May 12, 1871) was a French Chemist. ^[1][4] Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. A thermoplastic is a Plastic that Melts to a liquid when heated and freezes to a Brittle, very Glassy state when cooled sufficiently Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. Hermann Staudinger ( March 23, 1881 &ndash September 8, 1965) was a German chemist who demonstrated the existence of Macromolecules The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically-derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins ^[5]

Commercial products

Cellulose is the major constituent of paper and cardboard and of textiles made from cotton, linen, and other plant fibers. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum.

Cellulose can be converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film, and into rayon, an important fiber that has been used for textiles since the beginning of the 20th century. Cellophane is a thin transparent sheet made of regenerated Cellulose. Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic Fiber. Rayon is produced from naturally occurring Polymers and therefore it is not a truly Both cellophane and rayon are known as "regenerated cellulose fibers"; they are identical to cellulose in chemical structure and are usually made from viscose, a viscous solution made from cellulose. Viscose is a Viscous organic liquid used to make Rayon and Cellophane. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. A more recent and environmentally friendly method to produce rayon is the Lyocell process. Lyocell is a fiber made from Wood pulp Cellulose. It was first manufactured in 1987 by Courtaulds Fibres UK at their pilot plant S25

Cellulose is used in the laboratory as the stationary phase for thin layer chromatography. Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα chroma, color and γραφειν"graphein" to write is the collective term for a family of Laboratory It is the raw material in the manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which was historically used in smokeless gunpowder and as the base material for celluloid used for photographic and movie films until the mid 1930s. Nitrocellulose (also cellulose nitrate, flash paper) is a highly flammable compound formed by Nitrating Cellulose through exposure to Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of Propellants used in Firearms and Artillery which produce negligible smoke when fired unlike the older Celluloid is the name of a class of compounds created from Nitrocellulose and Camphor, plus dyes and other agents

Cellulose insulation made from recycled newsprint is becoming popular as an environmentally preferable material for building insulation. The word Cellulose comes from the French word for a living cellule and Glucose, which is sugar Building insulation refers broadly to any object in a building used as Insulation for any purpose

Cellulose is used to make hydrophilic and highly absorbent sponges, as well as water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in wallpaper paste. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together A binder is an ingredient used to bind together two or more other materials in mixtures Methylcellulose (or methyl cellulose) is a Chemical compound derived from Cellulose. Carboxymethyl cellulose, or CMC, is a Cellulose derivative with carboxymethyl groups (-CH2-COOH bound to some of the Hydroxyl groups This page refers to the material used for Interior decoration. Microcrystalline cellulose (E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as inactive fillers in tablets and as thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Microcrystalline Cellulose ( E460i) is an Excipient used in the formulation of Tablets and capsules. E numbers are number codes for Food additives and are usually found on Food labels throughout the European Union.

Cellulose source and energy crops

Main article: Energy crop

The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. An energy crop is a Plant grown as a low cost and low maintenance Harvest used to make Biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of An energy crop is a Plant grown as a low cost and low maintenance Harvest used to make Biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content Lignin or lignen is a complex Chemical compound most commonly derived from Wood and an integral part of the secondary Cell walls of Plants Non-food energy crops are more sustainable than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide ^[6] Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp, switchgrass, Miscanthus, Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species. This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Miscanthus is a Genus of about 15 species of Perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Willows, sallows and osiers form the Genus Salix, around 400 species of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs found primarily Populus is a genus of between 25–35 species of Flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere.

Some bacteria can convert cellulose into ethanol which can then be used as a fuel; see cellulosic ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants

A strand of cellulose, showing the hydrogen bonds within and between cellulose molecules (dashed). A hydrogen bond results from a Dipole-dipole force between an Electronegative atom and a Hydrogen atom bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen

Structure and properties

Cellulose has no taste, is odourless, is hydrophilic, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. The term chiral (pronounced /ˈkaɪɹ(əl̩/ is used to describe an object that is non- superimposable on its mirror image

Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. A condensation reaction is a Chemical reaction in which two Molecules or moieties ( Functional groups) combine to form one single molecule together with In Chemistry, a glycosidic bond is a certain type of Functional group that joins a Carbohydrate (sugar molecule to another which may be another carbohydrate This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch, glycogen, and other carbohydrates. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose residues from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen molecules on another chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. Hydroxyl in Chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an Oxygen atom and a Hydrogen atom connected by a Covalent bond. A hydrogen bond results from a Dipole-dipole force between an Electronegative atom and a Hydrogen atom bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen Tensile strength \sigma_{UTS} or S_U is the Stress at which a material breaks or permanently deforms This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed into a carbohydrate matrix, conferring rigidity to plant cells.

Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Crystallinity refers to the degree of structural order in a Solid. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60-70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water. An amorphous solid is a Solid in which there is no Long-range order of the positions of the Atoms (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are ^[7]

Chemically, cellulose can be broken down into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated acids at high temperature.

Many properties of cellulose depend on its degree of polymerization or chain length, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. The degree of polymerization, or DP is the number of repeat units in an average Polymer chain at time t in a Polymerization reaction. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial celluloses have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. ^[5] Molecules with very small chain length resulting from the break down of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents. Cellodextrins are Glucose polymers of varying length (two or more glucose monomers resulting from Cellulolysis, the breakdown of Cellulose.

Plant-derived cellulose is usually contaminated with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while microbial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content, and consists of long chains. A hemicellulose can be any of several Heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides present in almost all plant cell walls along with Cellulose. Lignin or lignen is a complex Chemical compound most commonly derived from Wood and an integral part of the secondary Cell walls of Plants Pectin (from Greek πηκτικός - pektikos, "congealed curdled" a white to light brown powder is a Heteropolysaccharide Microbial cellulose is a form of Cellulose that is produced by Bacteria.

Assaying cellulose

Given a cellulose-containing material, the portion that does not dissolve in a 17. 5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 °C is α cellulose, which is true cellulose. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature Acidification of the extract precipitates β cellulose. The portion that dissolves in base but does not precipitate with acid is γ cellulose.

Cellulose can be assayed using a method described by Updegraff in 1969, where the fiber is dissolved in acetic and nitric acid to remove lignin, hemicellulose, and xylosans. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound, giving Vinegar its sour taste Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and The resulting cellulose is allowed to react with anthrone in sulfuric acid. Anthrone is a tricyclic Aromatic hydrocarbon. It is used for a popular Cellulose Assay and in the colorometric determination of carbohydrates Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. The resulting coloured compound is assayed spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of approximately 635 nm. In Physics, spectrophotometry is the quantitative study of electromagnetic spectra. To help compare different Orders of magnitudes this page lists Lengths between 10&minus9 m (meter and 10&minus8 m (1 nm and 10 nm

In addition, cellulose is represented by the difference between acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL).

Biosynthesis

Location and arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in the plant cell wall. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural

In vascular plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTC's). Vascular plants (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) are those Plants that have lignified tissues for conducting The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer The RTC's are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains. In Chemistry, an oligomer consists of a limited number of Monomer units (ολιγος or oligos is Greek for "a few" in contrast to a A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a In Biochemistry, a synthase is an Enzyme which Catalyzes a Synthesis process ^[8] Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell wall.

The RTC's contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA genes, in an unknown stoichiometry. Stoichiometry (sometimes called reaction stoichiometry to distinguish it from composition stoichiometry is the Calculation of Quantitative (measurable ^[9] Separate sets of CesA genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural Cellulose synthase utilizes UDP-D-glucose precursors to generate microcrystalline cellulose. In Enzymology, a cellulose synthase (UDP-forming ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the Chemical reaction UDP-glucose + (14-beta-D-glucosyln Uridine diphosphate, abbreviated UDP, is a Nucleotide. It is an Ester of Pyrophosphoric acid with the Nucleoside Uridine Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate. CesA glucosyltransferase initiates cellulose polymerization using a steroid primer, 'sitosterol-beta-glucoside' and UDP-glucose. Glucosyltransferases are a type of Glycosyltransferase which enable the transfer of Glucose. A steroid is a Terpenoid Lipid characterized by a Carbon skeleton with four fused rings generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion ^[10] A cellulase may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain. Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or

Breakdown (cellulolysis)

Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Cellodextrins are Glucose polymers of varying length (two or more glucose monomers resulting from Cellulolysis, the breakdown of Cellulose. Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the break down of other polysaccharides. ^[11]

Mammals do not have the ability to break down cellulose directly. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (like Cellulomonas) in the flora of the gut wall, and these bacteria produce enzymes to break down cellulose; the break down products are then used by the mammal. Physiologically a ruminant is a Mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first stomach known This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Similarly, lower termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa which produce such enzymes; higher termites contain bacteria for the job. The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy The Hindgut (or epigaster) is the Posterior ( Caudal) part of the Alimentary canal. Flagellates are cells with one or more whip-like organelles called flagella. Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular Fungi, which in nature are responsible for recycling of nutrients, are also able to break down cellulose. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ

The enzymes utilized to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. In Chemistry, a glycosidic bond is a certain type of Functional group that joins a Carbohydrate (sugar molecule to another which may be another carbohydrate Glycoside hydrolases (also called glycosidases) catalyze the Hydrolysis of the Glycosidic linkage to generate two smaller Sugars They Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or Glycoside hydrolases (also called glycosidases) catalyze the Hydrolysis of the Glycosidic linkage to generate two smaller Sugars They Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and cellulose binding modules; these complexes are in some cases referred to as cellulosomes. Cellulosomes are complexes of Enzymes created by Bacteria such as Clostridium and Bacteroides, but functioning outside the cell

Hemicellulose

Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide related to cellulose that comprises ca. A hemicellulose can be any of several Heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides present in almost all plant cell walls along with Cellulose. 20% of the biomass of most plants. In contrast to cellulose, hemicellulose is derived from several sugars in addition to glucose, including especially xylose but also mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Xylose or wood sugar is an Aldopentose &mdash a Monosaccharide containing five Carbon Atoms and including an Aldehyde Functional Mannose is a Sugar Monomer of the Hexose series of Carbohydrates Metabolism Mannose enters the carbohydrate Metabolism Galactose (Gal (also called brain sugar) is a type of Sugar which is less sweet than Glucose. Rhamnose is a naturally occurring Deoxy sugar. It can be classified either as a methyl- Pentose or a 6-deoxy- Hexose. Arabinose is an Aldopentose &mdash a Monosaccharide containing five Carbon Atoms and including an Aldehyde (CHO Functional Hemicellulose consists of shorter chains - around 200 sugar units as opposed to 7,000 - 15,000 glucose molecules in the average cellulose polymer. Furthermore, hemicellulose is branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched.

Derivatives

The hydroxyl groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various reagents to afford derivatives with useful properties. Hydroxyl in Chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an Oxygen atom and a Hydrogen atom connected by a Covalent bond. A reagent or reactant is a substance or compound consumed during a Chemical reaction. Cellulose esters and cellulose ethers are the most important commercial materials. Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least Ether is a class of Organic compounds which contain an ether group — an Oxygen Atom connected to two (substituted Alkyl In principle, though not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.

Among the esters are cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate, which are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a variety of uses. Cellulose acetate, first prepared in 1865 is the Acetate Ester of Cellulose. Cellulose triacetate, also known simply as triacetate, is manufactured from Cellulose and Acetate. The inorganic ester nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material. Nitrocellulose (also cellulose nitrate, flash paper) is a highly flammable compound formed by Nitrating Cellulose through exposure to

Ether derivatives include

• Ethylcellulose, a water-insoluble commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets;
• Methylcellulose;
• Hydroxypropyl cellulose;
• Carboxymethyl cellulose;
• Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, E464, used as a viscosity modifier, gelling agent, foaming agent and binding agent;
• Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, used in production of cellulose films. Methylcellulose (or methyl cellulose) is a Chemical compound derived from Cellulose. Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC (cellulose 2-hydroxypropyl ether is a derivative of Cellulose with both water solubility and organic solubility Carboxymethyl cellulose, or CMC, is a Cellulose derivative with carboxymethyl groups (-CH2-COOH bound to some of the Hydroxyl groups E numbers are number codes for Food additives and are usually found on Food labels throughout the European Union.

References

See also

• Cell wall
• Cellulose insulation
• Cellulosic ethanol
• Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
• Hemicellulose
• Microbial cellulose

External links

• LSBU cellulose page
• Clear description of a cellulose assay method at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the USDA. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural The word Cellulose comes from the French word for a living cellule and Glucose, which is sugar Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Cellulosic ethanol commercialization can contribute to a successful renewable fuels future A hemicellulose can be any of several Heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides present in almost all plant cell walls along with Cellulose. Microbial cellulose is a form of Cellulose that is produced by Bacteria.
• Cellulose films could provide flapping wings and cheap artificial muscles for robots - TechnologyReview. com
• Using cellulase enzymes in the bioethanol process.
• A list of cellulolytic bacteria.
• Manufacturers of fluff cellulose all over the world