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"Mapmaker" redirects here. For other uses, see Mapmaker (disambiguation).

Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat surface. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called

One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in two dimensions as a flat surface. This necessarily entails some degree of distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing projections that minimize distortion in certain areas. A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular sphere, but its shape is instead known as a geoid, which is a highly irregular but exactly knowable and calculable shape. "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe The geoid is that Equipotential surface which would coincide exactly with the mean ocean surface of the Earth if the oceans were in equilibrium at rest and extended through

Maps of all scales have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the recent advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. The scale of a Map is the ratio of a single unit of distance on the map to the equivalent distance on the ground A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. Most commercial-quality maps are now made with software that falls into one of three main types: CAD, GIS, and specialized illustration software.

Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial information by making it visible. Information as a concept has a diversity of meanings from everyday usage to technical settings Spatial information is acquired from measurement of space and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Measurement is the process of estimating the magnitude of some attribute of an object such as its length or weight relative to some standard ( unit of measurement) such as A Computer Database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.

Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to illustrate geographic phenomena. This can aid in visualizing space in an abstract and portable format. The cartographic process rests on the premise that the world is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality. "The world " is a proper noun for the planet Earth envisioned from an Anthropocentric or Human Worldview, as a place

Contents

History

Main article: History of cartography
Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world
Copy (1475) of St. Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years Isidore's TO map of the world

The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city of Çatal Hüyük which has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish During the 7th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from Anatolia to the Balkans. [1] Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 BCE showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE). Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah [2] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning with Anaximander in the 6th century BC. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Anaximander ( Ancient Greek:) (c 610 BC–c 546 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC during the Warring States era. Qín or Ch'in ( Wade-Giles) (秦 ( 778 BC - 207 BC) was a State during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the

Early forms of cartography in India included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example the Ramayana. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki [3] Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. A pole star is a visible star especially a prominent one that is approximately aligned with the Earth 's Axis of rotation; that is a star whose apparent position [4] These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation. [4]

Mappa mundi is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Mappa mundi {{IPA|/ˈmapːa ˈmʊndiː/}} (plural = mappae mundi) is a general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents (Woodward, p. 286).

In the Age of Exploration from the 15th century to the 17th century, cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. This article is about the sextant as used for Navigation. For the astronomer's sextant, see Sextant (astronomical.

Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the Beaver Map, published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This article is about the cartographer for the convict see Herman Moll (convict. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. Father Louis Hennepin, OFM baptized Antoine, ( 12 May, 1626 &ndash c By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. [5]

Technological changes

A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado (c. 1520-c.1580). It belongs to the so-called plane chart model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were plane (Portuguse National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon)
A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado (c. 1520-c. 1580). It belongs to the so-called plane chart model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were plane (Portuguse National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon)

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Magnetic storage and magnetic recording are terms from Engineering referring to the storage of Data on a Magnetized medium

Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image A vernier scale is an additional scale which allows a distance or angle measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. This article is about the sextant as used for Navigation. For the astronomer's sextant, see Sextant (astronomical. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the The North Star is the prominent Pole star that lies closest in the sky to the north celestial pole and which appears (approximately directly overhead to The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System.

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the late 20th century and early 21st century advances in electronic technology led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically, computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. Typical PC hardware A typical Personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop and the following parts Motherboard The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic. A digital raster graphic (DRG is a Digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS Topographic map for use on a computer

Map types

General vs thematic cartography

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The United States Geological Survey ( USGS) is a scientific agency of the United States government. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A thematic map displays spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. A thematic map displays spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes A choropleth map ( Greek χωρα + πληθαίν ("area/region" + "multiply" is a Thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.

Small section of an orienteering map
Small section of an orienteering map

An orienteering map combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. Orienteering is a family of Sports that require Navigational skills using a Map and Compass, usually in combination with Point to point racing The most prominent thematic element is shading that indicates degrees of difficulty of travel due to vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, merely classified by the difficulty ("fight") that it presents.

Topographic vs topological

Sample detail of the 1:50,000 National Map of Switzerland.
Sample detail of the 1:50,000 National Map of Switzerland. Switzerland has had its current boundaries since 1815 but maps of the Old Swiss Confederacy were drawn since the 16th century

A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th century) the use of contour lines showing elevation. A topographic map is a type of Map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using Contour lines in modern Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets A contour line (also Level set, isopleth, isoline, isogram or isarithm) of a function of two Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction). Terrain, or relief, is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. Terrain or relief is an essential aspect of Physical geography, and as such its portrayal presents a central problem in Cartography, and more recently GIS

A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. In Cartography and Geology, a topological map refers to a Map that has been simplified so that only vital information remains and unnecessary It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information.

Map design

See also: Map projection

Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure. A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. Arthur H Robinson ( January 5, 1915 – October 19, 2004) was an American Geographer and Cartographer, who was " He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex. "[6] Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs.

From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes". [7] The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving information and was coined by Robinson. [8] The principle of figure-ground refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. An effectively designed Map is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user This will enhance the user’s experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.

Illustrated map
Illustrated map

Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9). An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93).

In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the human body to the virtual worlds of cyberspace. The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. A virtual world is a computer-based simulated environment intended for its users to inhabit and interact via avatars These avatars are usually depicted Cyberspace &mdash from the Greek el Κυβερνήτης (el kybernētēs steersman governor pilot or rudder &mdash is the global domain of electro-magnetics accessed Therefore there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by transit organisations to guide passengers, namely Urban rail and metro maps, many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by Harry Beck and George Dow. Harry Beck may refer to Harry Beck (footballer Harry Beck (graphic designer - designer of the London Underground Tube map George Dow (30 June 1907–28 January 1987 joined London and North Eastern Railway (LNER as a grade five clerk at Kings Cross railway station in London

Naming conventions

Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend, and other information. Cartographic labeling is a form of Typography and strongly deals with Form, style, weight and size of type on a map Maps are often made in specific languages, though names of places often differ between languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country, while a German map would use Deutschland, and French map Allemagne. A word that describes a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an exonym. An exonym (from Greek el ἔξω exo = out el ὄνομα onoma = name is a name for a place that is not used within that place by the local

In some cases the proper name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok for Krung Thep, and Ivory Coast for Côte d'Ivoire. Bangkok, known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (krūŋtʰêːp máhǎːnákʰɔn) or Krung Thep ( for short is the Capital, largest Côte d'Ivoire (ˌkoʊt divˈwɑː(r ' in English, kot diˈvwaʀ in French) or Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a

Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing systems is required. Transliteration is the practice of Transcribing a Word or text written in one Writing system into another writing system or system of rules for such practice Transcription is the conversion into written typewritten or printed form of a Spoken language source such as the proceedings of a court hearing A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as Russia for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter Р is traditionally written as R in the Latin alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet (səˈrɪlɪk also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters is actually a family of Alphabets, subsets of which are used by Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may vary. The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. For example, the Yemeni city of Mocha is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca, and Moka. Mocha ( Arabic: المخا) is a port city on the Red Sea coast of Yemen. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Other systems were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones. Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin

Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some counties have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both Brussel and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C English maps rarely show the French names outside Quebec, which itself is spelled Québec in French. [9]

The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is etymology. Toponymy refers to the scientific study of place-names ( toponyms) their origins meanings use and Typology. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time

Map symbology

The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to extract information, and to learn from the map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. Also known as processual symbolic analysis, symbology was developed by Victor Turner in the mid-1970s to refer to the use of symbols within cultural contexts in A legend explains the pictorial language of the map known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, projection, and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication. For Compass Airlines an Airline in the US using the Callsign "Compass Rose" See Compass Airlines A compass rose is a figure displaying the orientation A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane.

When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north but this might not be the case.

Color likewise is equally important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This fact allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications.

Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents and to symbolize this data on a map there are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties: Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color. A choropleth map ( Greek χωρα + πληθαίν ("area/region" + "multiply" is a Thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration (Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005).

Map generalization

A good map has to provide a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or themes) in the right place for the map scale used, against the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, which takes up space on the map medium and very likely will cause some other item of interest to be displaced. A thematic map displays spatial pattern of a theme or series of attributes The scale of a Map is the ratio of a single unit of distance on the map to the equivalent distance on the ground The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a slightly incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i. e the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map, takes up more space on the ground. A good example from the late 1980's was the Ordnance Survey's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features. Ordnance Survey (OS is an Executive agency of the United Kingdom government Ground truth is a term used in Cartography, Meteorology, analysis of aerial photographs, Satellite imagery and a range of other Remote

In popular culture

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ [1] "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" by Robert Kunzig. Aerial photography is the taking of Photographs of the ground from an elevated position Animated mapping is the application of Animation, either computer or video to add a temporal component to a Map displaying change in some dimension A cartogram is a Map in which some thematic mapping variable – such as travel time or Gross National Product – is substituted for land area Terrain or relief is an essential aspect of Physical geography, and as such its portrayal presents a central problem in Cartography, and more recently GIS The word “cybercartography” is the combination of two terms (1 “ Cyber ” (derived from Kubernan – to govern in Greek which in contemporary usage is related to cyberspace loosely Digital Cadastral DataBase (DCDB is a computerised map or 'spatial' location showing property boundaries normally in relation to adjoining and other close properties or parcels of land An effectively designed Map is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user The four color theorem (also known as the four color map theorem) states that given any plane separated into regions such as a political map of the states of a country A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction A Geocode ( G eospatial E ntity O bject Code) is representation format of a geospatial coordinate measurement used to provide a standard representation Geovisualization, short for Geographic Visualization, refers to a set of tools and techniques supporting geospatial data analysis through the use of Interactive visualization Here Be Dragons is a Historical novel by Sharon Penman, first published in 1985. A contour line (also Level set, isopleth, isoline, isogram or isarithm) of a function of two Isostasy (Greek isos = "equal" stásis = "standstill" is a term used in Geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the This is a list of symbols appearing on Japanese maps. These symbols are called in the Japanese language. Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ( NGA) is an agency of the United States Government with the primary mission of collection analysis and OpenStreetMap ( OSM) is a collaborative project to create a free editable Map of the world Basic concept of GPS operation A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the constellation of GPS Satellites high above the Earth An orthophoto or orthophotograph is an aerial photograph that has been geometrically corrected ("orthorectified" such that the scale of the photograph Pictorial maps are a category of Maps that are also loosely called illustrated maps panoramic maps perspective maps bird’s-eye view maps and Geopictorial See also Public Land Survey System The Point of Beginning is a surveyor 's mark at the beginning location for the wide-scale surveying of land Mean sea level (MSL is the average (mean height of the Sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface Terra incognita is the Latin term for "unknown land" used in Cartography for regions that have not been mapped or documented Discover Magazine, May 1999.
  2. ^ http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html The Nippur Expedition
  3. ^ Sircar 327
  4. ^ a b Sircar 330
  5. ^ "Map Imitation" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  6. ^ Robinson, A. H. (1953). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN.  
  7. ^ Robinson, A. H. (1982). Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography. . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. . ISBN.  
  8. ^ MacEachren, A. M. (1995). How Maps Work. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN.  
  9. ^ This section based on: "Transliteration Systems". Illustrated Atlas of the World. (1992). Rand McNally. Rand McNally is the preeminent American publisher of Maps Atlases and Globes for travel reference commercial and educational uses A16-A17. ISBN 0-528-83492-4.  

References

External links

See Maps for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below. A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes

Dictionary

cartography

-noun

  1. The creation of charts and maps based on the layout of a territory's geography.
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