Carrageenans or carrageenins (pronounced /ˌkærəˈgiːnənz/) are a family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds. Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic Multicellular, benthic marine Algae. The name is derived from a type of seaweed that is abundant along the Irish coastline. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Gelatinous extracts of the Chondrus crispus seaweed have been used as food additives for hundreds of years,^[1] though analysis of carrageenan safety as an additive continues. Chondrus crispus, known under the common name Irish moss, or carrageen moss ( Irish carraigín, "little rock" is a species ^[2]

Contents 1 Properties 2 Uses 2.1 Sexual lubricant and microbicide 2.1.1 HSV 2.1.2 HPV 2.1.3 HIV 3 Health concerns 4 See also 5 References

Properties

Carrageenans are large, highly flexible molecules which curl forming helical structures. A helix (pl helixes or helices) from the Greek word έλιξ, is a special kind of Space curve, i This gives them the ability to form a variety of different gels at room temperature. A gel (from the lat gelu &mdashfreezing cold ice or gelatus &mdashfrozen immobile is an apparently solid jelly-like material formed from a They are widely used in the food and other industries as thickening and stabilizing agents. Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which when added to an aqueous mixture increase its Viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties In Chemistry a stabilizer is a chemical which tends to inhibit the reaction between two or more other chemicals A particular advantage is that they are pseudoplastic — they thin under shear stress and recover their viscosity once the stress is removed. A non-Newtonian fluid is a Fluid whose flow properties are not described by a single constant value of Viscosity. A shear stress, denoted \tau\ ( Tau) is defined as a stress which is applied Parallel or tangential to a face of a material Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. This means that they are easy to pump but stiffen again afterwards.

There are three main commercial classes of carrageenan:

• Kappa — strong, rigid gels. Produced from Kappaphycus cottonii
• Iota — soft gels. Kappaphycus cottonii is a Red alga. It is farmed as a source of Carageenan. Produced from Eucheuma spinosum
• Lambda — form gels when mixed with proteins rather than water, used to thicken dairy products. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl The most common source is Gigartina from Southern Europe.

Many red algal species produce different types of carrageenans during their developmental history. For instance, the genus Gigartina produces mainly Kappa carrageenans during its gametophytic stage, and Lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage. In Plants and Algae that undergo Alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure or phase that is Haploid, containing All land plants and some Algae, have life cycles in which a haploid Gametophyte generation alternates with a Diploid sporophyte, the generation of a See Alternation of generations. The Alternation of phases (or generations) describes the life cycle of Plants Fungi and Protists A multicellular Diploid phase alternates

All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water only the Lambda form (and the sodium salts of the other two) are soluble.

When used in food products, carrageenan has the EU additive E-number E407 or E407a when present as "Processed eucheuma seaweed". The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in E numbers are number codes for Food additives and are usually found on Food labels throughout the European Union. Although introduced on an industrial scale in the 1930s, the first use was in China around 600 BC (where Gigartina was used) and in Ireland around 400 AD. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world

The largest producer is the Philippines, where cultivated seaweed produces about 80% of the world supply. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The most commonly used are Cottonii (Kappaphycus alvarezii, K. striatum) and Spinosum (Eucheuma denticulatum), which together provide about three quarters of the world production. These grow at sea level down to about 2 metres. The seaweed is normally grown on nylon lines strung between bamboo floats and harvested after three months or so when each plant weighs around 1 kg.

The Cottonii variety has been reclassified as Kappaphycus cottonii by Maxwell Doty (1988), thereby introducing the genus Kappaphycus, on the basis of the phycocolloids produced (namely kappa carrageenan).

After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and washed thoroughly. Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles After treatment with hot alkali solution (e. In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal g. 5-8% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and filtration. Potassium hydroxide is the Inorganic compound with the formula K[[hydroxide OH]] Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the Centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures used in industry and in laboratory settings Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e It is dried and ground to specification.

Uses

• Desserts, ice cream, milk shakes, sweetened condensed milks, sauces — gel to increase viscosity
• Beer — clarifier to remove haze-causing proteins
• Pâtés and processed meat — Substitute fat to increase water retention and increase volume
• Toothpaste — stabilizer to prevent constituents separating
• Fire fighting foam — thickener to cause foam to become sticky
• Shampoo and cosmetic creams — thickener
• Air freshener gels
• Marbling -- the ancient art of paper and fabric marbling uses a carrageenan mixuture to float paints or inks upon; the paper or fabric is then laid on it, absorbing the colors. Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a meal usually consisting of sweet Food but sometimes of a strongly-flavored one such as some Cheeses The Ice cream or ice-cream (originally iced cream) is a frozen dessert made from Dairy products such as Milk and Cream, combined In Cooking, a sauce is Liquid or sometimes semi- Solid food served on or used in preparing other Foods Sauces are not consumed by themselves Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Pâté (French pronunciation; RP pronunciation; General American pronunciation) In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer Toothpaste is a Paste or Gel Dentifrice used to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of Teeth. Shampoo is a Hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt skin particles Dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that
• Shoe polish — gel to increase viscosity
• Biotechnology — gel to immobilize cells/enzymes
• Pharmaceuticals — used as an inactive excipient in pills/tablets
• Carrageenan has also been used to thicken skim milk, in an attempt to emulate the consistency of whole milk. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. Biotechnology is Technology based on Biology, especially when used in Agriculture, Food science, and Medicine. An excipient is an inactive substance used as a carrier for the Active ingredients of a Medication. This usage did not become popular. It's used in some brands of soy milk
• Diet sodas
• Lambda carrageenan is used in animal models of inflammation used to test analgesics, because dilute carrageenan solution (1-2%) injected subcutaneously causes swelling and pain. Soy milk (also called soya milk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from Diet sodas (also diet pop, diet, sugar-free, or light Soft drinks, refreshments', or carbonated beverages

Sexual lubricant and microbicide

Laboratory studies suggest that carrageenans might function as topical microbicides, blocking sexually transmitted viruses such as HPV and herpes, though not HIV. A major effort is currently underway to develop Topical microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases that might be applied to Condoms or directly to the genitals to block A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans A human papillomavirus ( HPV) is a Papillomavirus that infects the skin and Mucous membranes of Humans Approximately 130 HPV types have been Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 ( HSV-1 and HSV-2) are two species of the herpes virus family Herpesviridae, which cause infections

HSV

There are indications that a carrageenan-based gel may offer some protection against HSV-2 transmission by binding to the receptors on the herpes virus thus preventing the virus from binding to cells. Researchers have shown that a carrageenan-based gel effectively prevented HSV-2 infection at a rate of 85% in a mouse model. See Herpes simplex: Polysaccharides

HPV

A study published in August 2006 found it potentially a thousand times as effective against HPV (measuring in vitro infectivity of pseudoviruses, which are believed to mimic the activity of actual viruses). Herpes simplex is a Viral disease caused by Herpes simplex viruses both herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1 and herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2 cause herpes simplex A human papillomavirus ( HPV) is a Papillomavirus that infects the skin and Mucous membranes of Humans Approximately 130 HPV types have been In vitro ( Latin: within the glass refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a controlled environment outside of a living Organism The Pseudoviridae are a family of Viruses including the following genera Genus Pseudovirus; type species Saccharomyces If effective, its cost compared to HPV vaccines and its ability to target any strain of the virus would make it an attractive prevention measure against cervical cancer, especially in developing countries. Human papillomavirus (HPV vaccine is a Vaccine that targets certain strains of Human papillomavirus associated with the development of Cervical ^[3] Some personal and condom lubricants are already made with carrageenan, and several of these products (such as Bioglide and Divine) were found to be potent HPV inhibitors in the study (though others that listed carrageenan in their ingredients were not). Personal lubricants are specialized Lubricants which serve during sexual intercourse to reduce Friction with the Vagina, the Anus, or other A condom is a device most commonly used during Sexual intercourse. Divine is a brand of Personal lubricant manufactured by Divine Corporation in Orlando Florida ^[4]

Although the researchers are optimistic and show that the products "block HPV infectivity in vitro, even when diluted a million-fold", they emphasize that "it would be inappropriate to recommend currently available products for use as topical microbicides" until further human tests are complete. (By comparison, similarly optimistic results were expected for HIV prevention by cellulose sulfate gels, based on early tests, but the clinical trials had to be halted when the gel was found to increase incidence of HIV infection. Cellulose sulfate was a candidate Microbicide that had been stopped for regulatory approval to be used therapeutically in the prevention of the spread of )^[5]

The researchers then tested HPV infectivity in mice. This study, released in July 2007, also found promising results, preventing infection in vivo by HPV-16 pseudoviruses even in the presence of nonoxynol-9, which was shown to greatly increase infection when used alone. In vivo ( Latin: within the living means that which takes place inside an organism. Nonoxynol-9, sometimes abbreviated as N-9, is a non-ionic Nonoxynol Surfactant that is used as an ingredient in various cleaning and cosmetic products ^[6] The results for the carrageenan tests (including those with Divine and Bioglide commercial lubricants) showed no detectable infection, while the viscous control gel and N-9 gels did. Scientific controls allow Experiments to study one Variable at a time and are a vital part of the Scientific method. ^[7][8]

While effectiveness trials have not been completed and side effects have not been ruled out, companies are already planning to capitalize on the discovery, such as Dreamspan naming their lubricant Carrageenan after its principal ingredient. ^[9][10][11]

HIV

A phase 3 clinical trial by Population Council examined whether a carrageenan-based product known as Carraguard was effective as a topical microbicide for blocking HIV infection in women. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices The Population Council is an international nonprofit Non-governmental organization. A microbicide is any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce the infectivity of microbes such as Viruses or bacteria. ^[3] The trial ran from 2004 to 2007, with more than 4,000 South African women completing the study, but found no statistical difference in infection between those who used the lubricant and those who did not. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa ^[12][13] The trial did provide information about usage patterns, however, and showed that the gel is safe at least - not increasing infection any more than the baseline or causing significant side effects. As such, they expect to use it as a stable delivery vehicle for experimental antiretrovirals in future studies.

Health concerns

There is evidence from studies performed on rats, guinea pigs and monkeys which indicates that degraded carrageenan (poligeenan) may cause ulcerations in the gastro-intestinal tract and gastro-intestinal cancer. Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea The Guinea pig (also commonly called the cavy after its scientific name Cavia porcellus) is a species of Rodent belonging to the family Caviidae A monkey is any member of either the New World monkeys or Old World monkeys two of the three groupings of Simian Primates the third group being Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled ^[14] Poligeenan is produced from carrageenan subjected to high temperatures and acidity. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are The average carrageenan molecule weighs over 100,000 Da while poligeenans have a molecular weight of less than 50,000 Da. The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express A scientific committee working on behalf of the European Commission has recommended that the amount of degraded carrageenan be limited to a maximum of 5% (which is the limit of detection) of total carrageenan mass. A committee (some of which are titled instead as a "Commission" or other terms discussed below in) is a type of small Deliberative assembly that is usually intended The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. Upon testing samples of foods containing high molecular weight carrageens, researchers found no poligeenan. ^[15]

A recent publication^[16] indicates that carrageenan induces inflammation in human intestinal epithelial cells in tissue culture through a BCL10-mediated pathway that leads to activation of NFkappaB and IL-8. NF-κB ( nuclear factor-kappa B) is a protein complex that is a Transcription factor. Carrageenan may be immunogenic due to its unusual alpha-1,3-galactosidic link that is part of its disaccharide unit structure. Immunogenicity is the ability of a particular substance which is called the Antigen, to provoke an Immune response. Consumption of carrageenan may have a role in intestinal inflammation and possibly inflammatory bowel disease, since BCL10 resembles NOD2, mutations of which are associated with genetic proclivity to Crohn's Disease. NOD2 ( n ucleotide-binding o ligomerization d omain containing 2) is a Protein, also known as the caspase recruitment domain Crohn's disease is a Disease of the Digestive system which may affect any part of the Gastrointestinal tract from Mouth to Anus

See also

• Agar
• List of food additives

References

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